cal 22 sailboat for sale

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• Sailboat Guide

Cal 22 is a 22 ′ 0 ″ / 6.7 m monohull sailboat designed by Raymond Hunt (C.R. Hunt & Assoc.) and built by Bangor Punta Corp., Jensen Marine/Cal Boats, and Lear Siegler Inc. between 1984 and 1997.

Rig and Sails

Auxilary power, accomodations, calculations.

The theoretical maximum speed that a displacement hull can move efficiently through the water is determined by it's waterline length and displacement. It may be unable to reach this speed if the boat is underpowered or heavily loaded, though it may exceed this speed given enough power. Read more.

Classic hull speed formula:

Hull Speed = 1.34 x √LWL

Max Speed/Length ratio = 8.26 ÷ Displacement/Length ratio .311 Hull Speed = Max Speed/Length ratio x √LWL

Sail Area / Displacement Ratio

A measure of the power of the sails relative to the weight of the boat. The higher the number, the higher the performance, but the harder the boat will be to handle. This ratio is a "non-dimensional" value that facilitates comparisons between boats of different types and sizes. Read more.

SA/D = SA ÷ (D ÷ 64) 2/3

• SA : Sail area in square feet, derived by adding the mainsail area to 100% of the foretriangle area (the lateral area above the deck between the mast and the forestay).
• D : Displacement in pounds.

Ballast / Displacement Ratio

A measure of the stability of a boat's hull that suggests how well a monohull will stand up to its sails. The ballast displacement ratio indicates how much of the weight of a boat is placed for maximum stability against capsizing and is an indicator of stiffness and resistance to capsize.

Ballast / Displacement * 100

Displacement / Length Ratio

A measure of the weight of the boat relative to it's length at the waterline. The higher a boat’s D/L ratio, the more easily it will carry a load and the more comfortable its motion will be. The lower a boat's ratio is, the less power it takes to drive the boat to its nominal hull speed or beyond. Read more.

D/L = (D ÷ 2240) ÷ (0.01 x LWL)³

• D: Displacement of the boat in pounds.
• LWL: Waterline length in feet

Comfort Ratio

This ratio assess how quickly and abruptly a boat’s hull reacts to waves in a significant seaway, these being the elements of a boat’s motion most likely to cause seasickness. Read more.

Comfort ratio = D ÷ (.65 x (.7 LWL + .3 LOA) x Beam 1.33 )

• D: Displacement of the boat in pounds
• LOA: Length overall in feet
• Beam: Width of boat at the widest point in feet

Capsize Screening Formula

This formula attempts to indicate whether a given boat might be too wide and light to readily right itself after being overturned in extreme conditions. Read more.

CSV = Beam ÷ ³√(D / 64)

Shoal Draft version. draft - 2.83 disp. - 2275 ballast. - 925 Some boats were sold with a masthead rig. I: 29.3’ J: 8.4’ P: 25.8’ E: 9.2’

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Cal 22 Boats for sale

1972 CAL 33

Marshfield, Massachusetts

Category Sloop

Posted 1 Month Ago

The boat did not see the water last season and below decks needs significant painting and cleaning. A tree branch fell on the boat damaging 2 stanchions needing repair. The bottom is in good shape with only some touchup paint needed before launch. It will also need new zincs. The holding tank was removed and there is a port-a-potty in place of the toilet. Stock #309028 1972 Cal 33 in Fair Shape w/Many Extras For a Crew of 2 This Call 33 is currently in storage and under a tarp. The boat appears structurally sound however below deck will require significant work to make it pretty. Cleaning and paint are needed. The cushions for the main salon, quarter berths, and vee berth are in storage. The rudder uses a tiller stick to steer. It uses a Sailomat wind vane for self-steering. Solar power panel is used with the needed controller and additional power is generated with a wind generator. It has 4 batteries. A Furuno radar unit is located below the deck along with a VHF radio. The owner used a portable GPS for navigating. The reliable Yanmar 3GM30F engine will cruise the boat at 6 knots. The main salon has a wood/coal stove for heat. The galley includes a gimballed stove top/oven. It carries 15 gallons of fresh water and uses a hand pump for the sink. The fold-down dinette table in the main salon clears away for easy movement in the salon. The primary anchor is a 22-pound Tansey CQR with 80 feet of stainless chain. Additionally, there are also 22 and 15-pound Danforth anchors. Reason for selling is looking for another boat.

1986 CAL 22

Mamaroneck, New York

Category Sailboats

Posted Over 1 Month

1986 CAL 22 Tiller Steering5hp Outboard Tahatsu Sails in Great Condition

Sodus Point, New York

1986 CAL 22 The Cal 22 is a fantastic little sailboat perfect for daysailing, racing or the occasional overnight or weekend. Easily sailed with a large comfortable cockpit and nice accommodations below. The cabin is not tall enough to stand, but does have space to sleep 4-6 people. The boat is easily sailed and comes with a newer 2004 trailer. Dodger & Bimini included.

Beautiful Cal 22 sailboat

Los Gatos, California

Length 22.0

I'm afraid I need to sell my Cal 22 sailboat. I bought this boat in the fall, and spent the winter making everything clean and safe. I inspected and tuned-up the mast, the hull, the upholstery, the electronics, etc.. She was launched 7 weeks ago. And unfortunately, 6 weeks ago my wife and kids decided that they hate sailing. This boat comes with a ton of extras, and a trailer. It can be easily trailed to anywhere you might wish with any kind of truck or SUV, and it draws no water. It has a 9.9 Honda that always starts, and also a very clean set of sails. The whole boat was professionally reupholstered a few years back. It has a West Marine dinghy, autopilot, stove, bbq, toilet. Because of it's length, berthing fees are cheap. I pay $100/month to berth in San Mateo. Insurance is also cheap. I pay $125/year to insure with Boat US, and $180/year for CA registration. I am happy to deliver this boat anywhere in California for a reasonable price. Here are the specifics:Motor: Honda 9.9, 5 gallon gas tank; recently cleaned and filled; 1 container of engine oilRudder: easily removable for trailering; new in 2002. Tiller: One is brand new and nicely varnished; the other is a spare; comes with a cover to protect the varnish; two telescoping tiller extensions; Autopilot: I'm not kidding. Who installs an autopilot on a 22 foot sailboat?Transom traveler: keeps the cockpit nice and cleanStanchions: Vey solid; guardrails were recently inspected and tightened; new guardrail covers come with the boat, as well as baby or pet netting. Sails: mainsail, jib, genoa, and spinaker, with two spinaker poles (all new in 2003; cost approx $2400)Boom/Mast: everything washed, inspected and lubed in April 2014. Nothing overlooked. Halyards runs smoothly. Has a excellent masthead windex.Lines: All halyards and sheets washed and inspected this past winter. Electronics: Compass and depth finder mounted permanently in boat. Electric system works nicely. There is a solar panel that trickle charges the 12v battery; this powers the autopilot, the masthead light, the bow and transom lights, the cabin lights, and depth finder. All connections look good.Navigation: GPS and chart plotter (via netbook)Docking: 2 fenders, several docks lines, 2 boat hooks.Anchors: two anchors, one brand new; chains inspected, cleaned and lubed in April 2014Bellow deck; nice, clean pillows and upholstery ($1872 project in 2011); new alcohol stove, water tank, sink, toilet, cooler, removable wood dining tableEmergency supplies: flares, fire extinguisher, fog hornWinches: Nice clean winches for the jib sheetJib Furler: This thing looks like overkill on a 22-footer, but is actually really convenient, especially when you're the only person on deck who can sail. Other: Bucket with boat cleaning supplies (soap, brushes, sponges, etc. . ..); West Marine inflatable dinghy, with 2 oars and lifting strapsPaperwork: Trailer registered with DMV; has a Permanent Trailer Identification card (registration never expires); Boat is registered until January 1, 2016. DMV charges $180/year. Boat is fully insured with Boat US. The policy costs me $125/yearComes with original CAL 22 owner's manual from 1987; and the Honda outboard motor manual Delivery: I could deliver her anywhere in California for a reasonable shipping fee. Thanks for looking. Call or write with questions. Geoff

1985 CAL CAL 22

Beaufort, South Carolina

Model CAL 22

Category Sloop Sailboats

1985 CAL CAL 22 GREAT LITTLE WEEKENDER OR DAYSAILER. PERFECT FOR EXPERIENCED OR BEGINNNER ALIKE. BRAND NEW HEADSAIL, ROLLER FURLING 2014 YAMAHA F6 ON GARELIK BRACKET, VHF AND ALL SAFETY GEAR GREAT SHAPE INSIDE AND OUT, NEW BOTTOM PAINT 5/15 CALL JOHN 843-575-5771 DRAWS 3'6" - SAILS FAST, POINTS HIGH

1985 Cal Yachts 22

Toledo, Ohio

Make Cal Yachts

1985 Cal Yachts 22, 22' Cal sailboat cuddly, port a potty. Lightly used. Sails fair condition. Trailer included. Call Or text 419-351-0668. Located at Toledo Beach Marina / Toledo oh. $4200.00

1987 Cal Yachts Sloop

Grasonville, Maryland

Model Sloop

Category Daysailer Sailboats

1987 Cal Yachts Sloop, Amici sleeps 4 adults in forward berth and on the two side settees. Marine type II head located under the forward berth. There is 5 gal fresh cold water tank with hand pump at small galley sink with room for small portable gallery stove next to sink. All running lights with AGM battery.I have used her for the past 10 years to teach beginning ASA 101 Basic Keelboat classes. I am in the process of replacing her with a new Beneteau First 22. She has been maintained in good condition. She will need some work on her teak and a good wax job. Ratherwise, she is ready to sail away. She is an excellent, fun, day sailer. She could be trailed although there is no trailer with her.Vessel is currently located in the water at Mears Point Marine, Grasonville, MD. Please email [email protected] to arrange viewing her. Cash or cashiers check accepted. Amici With4 stroke Mercury 8 hp 2012. Improvements include: New interior cushions - 2006 New sails in 2008New running rigging 2007 2012New standing rigging 2012New roller furling 2012Rebuilt rudder and replaced hardware - 2014Last bottom painting Aug 2015 $3500

Cal 2-27 Sloop Fully equipped cruising vessel. Immaculate Condition.

Portsmouth, New Hampshire

Make Cal 2-27 Sloop By Jensen Marine, Costa Messa, CA

Category Cruiser Motorcycles

Length 27.0

NAME: RUBAIYAT TYPE: 27' Cal 2-27 Sloop BUILDER: Jensen Marine, Costa Mesa, Ca DESIGNER: William Lapworth HULL MATERIAL: Fiberglass ENGINE: Single Yanmar YSM-12 Diesel, 12 hp, 1 cylinder, SWC USCG DOCUMENTED BOAT -- # 595240 LOA: 27' LWL: 22'1" BEAM: 9' 3" YEAR: 1978 DRAFT: 4'3" DISP: 6,700 lbs BALLAST: 3,100 HEADROOM: 6' 3" +/- BRIDGE CLEARANCE: 46' TANKAGE: Fuel: 15 gallons in new aluminum tank. Water: 18 gallons Holding Tank: 15 gallons with 12V macerator pump to discharge tank. HULL & DECK: - White original gelcoat on hull, beige boottop, black bottom; beige and white decks. - Fin keel; spade rudder. - Single lifelines. - S/S bow and stern rail. - S/S ladder on transom. - S/S oversized chainplates. - Tiller steering (with extension). - Lewmar 1000 electric windlass, up & down. ENGINE & MECHANICAL: - Single Yanmar YSM-12 Diesel, 12 hp, 1 cylinder, SWC - 1 1/4" bronze shaft - 2 bladed 12" bronze prop - Morse controls - Yanmar tool kit; Yanmar manuals - Ventilation for engine room ELECTRICAL: - 12V electrical system - Fused electrical panel - Two 12V deep cycle Group 27 & 31 batteries - Guest battery switch and monitor Altus - Both batteries are trickle-charged by solar panel on top of bimini, with regulator - One Rule 1100 gph 12V - bilge pump - New 75 Amp alternator in a box (spare) - LED lights added to light fixtures in main salon ACCOMMODATIONS: - Sleeps four - Anchor locker forward followed by vee berth with storage under, and curtain to close off vee berth area - Galley includes Kenyon pressurized 2 burner alcohol stove; S/S sink with manual pump, icebox, teak storage racks, dish lockers - Across is portsettee and large dining table, bulkhead mounted - Raritan head with holding tank with 12V macerator, through holding tank, then out - Door between head and main salon - Brass gimballed Perko kerosene lamp - Brown tweed upholstery; new beige curtains - Teak bulkheads and trim - Fiberglass sole - S/S sink with Manual Pump in forward compartment ELECTRONICS: - Authohelm Tillermaster ST2000 autopilot - Northstar 952X GPS-Plotter on a swing-out bracket (with chips from Eastport to Florida) - Furuno GPS-WAAS GP-32 - Raytheon ST60 depthsounder - ICOM M502 - with DSC VHF radio - Polyplaner CD/AM/FM player with 2 speakers - Aquameter bulkhead mounted coompass SAILS & RIGGING: - 374 sq. ft. sail area - Eggers mainsail in very good condition - Hank-on 150% genoa - Approximately 140% genoa. Cockpit Reefing - Main & jib halyards - Brown mainsail cover and genoa sunshield - S/S oversized chainplates - No jiffy reefing on mainsail - Two Barient #10 one speed sheet winches - Mainsheet traveler on bridgedeck - Deck stepped mast - 2 winch handles - Wind sock scoop EQUIPMENT: - 1 set of jack lines - Manual overboard pole - Brown bimini top - S/S bollard at bow - 12V Lewmar 1000 windlass - 25 lb CQR chrome anchor with 20' of S/S chain and 200' of 9/16" nylon rode - 2nd Danforth anchor with 5' of chain & 125' of nylon rode - 3 large fenders with covers - 5-6 gold braid docklines - 3 fire extinguishers - 5 gal non-spill fuel container - Flag - 15"x30" Yacht Ensign - Manual cockpit bilge pump; spare hand bilge pump - Orion flare gun with 12-guage pistol - Bronze bell - Air horn - 6 life jackets (rigid) and 4 West Marine Neoprene PFD's - First Aid kit - Radar relfector - Anchor light; nav light - Boat hook - Boom vang - New cockpit cushions - MOB pole - Life ring (yellow) - Life sling Hard-Pack - Weems & Plath Atlantis brass ship's clock and barometer - Dinghy with oars and 12V trolling motor & battery - Map Tech Block Island to Canadian Border - Map Tech New Jersey (Cape May) to Nantucket PRICE: 12,900 LOCATION: Great Bay Marina, Newington, NH

1969 Cal 25 sailboat with Honda 4stroke outboard, awlgrip hull and deck

Milford, Connecticut

This sailboat was donated to the Milfordsailingfoundation.org a 501(c)3 non profit organization. It is a 1969 Cal 25 with a 7.5 hp 4 stroke Honda long shaft outboard. Boat is complete and in nice shape. Awlgrip hull and deck, new tiller. See pics. Please email or call with any questions. Asking $3500 obo Proceeds from this sale will go to support our mission of bringing the joy of sailing to young people and adults. The purpose of the foundation is to give equal access to all persons interested in promoting, sustaining and furthering the education and training of persons in sailing and water safety. We are a tax deductible 501c3 organization incorporated in Ct. This is a wonderful non-profit program geared to educate and excite young people into the world of sailing. These young people may be your future crew! Currently we have a small Optimist, 420, J22 and Laser fleet. Donors please contact board members Thomas Jankun203-464-2675 or Bruce Kuryla 203-301-2222

2014 Axis T22

Vacaville, California

Category Ski And Wakeboard Boats

2014 Axis T22 Hello all, I am selling my 2014 Axis T22. I am the original owner of this. The boat has been great to us with no problems at all. The boat has been serviced every 50 hours by Cal Marine. The impeller has also been changed every year. The boat has 1around 140 hours on it right now. My wife and I are trying to have a baby so we won't have time for the boat anymore. The boat has 4 rev 8's on the tower and also has a sub located under the dash. It also has alpine speakers throughout the interior of the boat. It also has two wet sound amps that are mounted on the side wall. The sound system was installed by dennis at Pure Audio. It also has two batteries with a mounted perko switch and on board charging system. The windows are tinted as well. This boat is great because it has surf gates which allows different riders to ride either side without switching weight from side to side. The boat comes stock with 1250 lbs of ballast. We have added 900lbs on each side of the rear lockers, as well as 650 under the front seats. I have also purchased a 450 lb sac that I usually put in the walkway for extra weight in the front. The boat also has cruise control. This boat is very similar to the malibu's. The only real difference is this boat does not have the fancy touch screens. Everything is controlled by toggle switches. This boat is nearly flawless with no big scratches or tears in the seats. I have washed and cleaned the interior after every ride. This boat also comes with two props, I purchased the high altitude prop because of the extra weight from the ballast, and it comes with the stock prop as well. Price is negotiable, however please do not lowball me. I am in no hurry to sell, but for the right price it will go. Please do not hesitate to call or text. Brent 707-Five Eight Zero-3632.

2016 Bennington 22 SLX

Request Price

Rancho Cordova, California

Make Bennington

Model 22 SLX

Category Pontoon Boats

2016 Bennington 22 SLX, New Edition to NorCal MasterCraft Sacramento Lot! This 2016 Bennington 22 SLX is an eye catching two tone and comes with many premium options! Options include - Matador Red Panel Accent, Bow Seat Gate, Ice Chest, 2 Portable Cupholders, Maple-Bow Table, Ottoman, G Recliner Help and many more options! Call NorCal MasterCraft Sacramento now for more details and to find out how you can own this model!

2015 Bennington 22SSX

2015 Bennington 22SSX, Boat options include, Red Canvas, Tilt Steering, 2 Portable Cup-Holders, G Recliner Helm, DLX Bass seats, Double Bimini, Sony CD, Echo 100, and more!! Call NorCal Mastercraft now for more details!!! 916-277-8331

2015 Bennington 22SSRX

2015 Bennington 22SSRX, Boat options include, Regatta blue, Vapor graphics, Express Tube Package, In floor storage, Sea star hydraulic steering, Blue canvas, Pillow top upgrade, 2 Portable cupholders, Reclining helm and much much more!! Call now for more details!!! NorCal Mastercraft - (916) 277-8331

2015 Bennington 22SCWX

2015 Bennington 22SCWX, Boat Options Include, Express tube package, In-floor Storage, Sea Star Hydraulic Steering W/Tilt, Champagne Canvas, Pillow top upgrade, 2 Portable cup holders, G-Recliner Helm Seat, Maple trim accent, Double Bimini and much much more! Call now for more details NorCal Mastercraft !! 916-277-8331

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pershing 115 yacht

Pershing 115 Yachts

Pershing 115 for Sale

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Pershing 115 For Sale

Our website offers a wide selection of Pershing 115 yachts for sale.

Our website offers a wide selection of Pershing 115 Yachts for sale.

For years the flagship of the Pershing the 115 is a revered superyacht capable of astonishing performances. The yacht reaches a speed above the 40 knows zooming from Miami to the Bahamas in the blink of an eye. She is the perfect South Florida yacht to enjoy a weekend in the Bahamas!

Request the brochure of this model to get all the details you might need, including the layout for accommodations, guest areas, amenities, features and much more.

Request the full specification of this model to get all the details you might need, including accommodations, engine room, electronics, equipment and much more.

Request the layout of this superyacht to get all the details you might need, including the layout for accommodations, guest areas, crew cabins, deck spaces, engine room, and much more.

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Pershing 115 yachts for sale.

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• Pershing 115
• By Dag Pike
• Updated: October 4, 2007

yachting/images/magazine/2005/122005/fea_pershing_525x350.jpg

It takes something very special to impress the jilted residents of the exclusive French town of St. Tropez. Years ago we brought this depot for the rich and famous to a standstill arriving with Virgin Atlantic Challenger II, but we had just set a record across the Atlantic. Sprinting into the port with the striking new, 40-knot Pershing 115 did not quite have the same impact, but this beautiful yacht did stop onlookers in their tracks as they stood and stared.

With the 115, Pershing joins a select band of boatbuilders who are going over the 100-foot mark, taking a quantum leap from the 88-foot former flagship design. This yacht has twice the volume of anything Pershing has ever built. Moreover I was on the first hull and for a prototype design they have done a really superb job of meeting their design and perfomance goals.

Pershing boss Till Antonelli is justifiably proud of the 115. “We knew there was a market out there for a larger Pershing and I think we took a bold step in making the jump straight from 88 to 115 feet. The result is there for all to see and it is a tribute to our new factory and the people who work there, Antonelli says.

The power behind this monster is a pair of 16 cylinder MTU diesels from the 4000 range that produce 3,700 hp each. These engines are huge and they seem to stretch forever along the engine compartment. They are coupled to ZF gearboxes and then the drive goes to KaMeWa water jets in what proved to be a very smooth power train. The water jets are unique in that the inlet ducts of the jets are an integral part of the hull molding which gives a better water flow to the impellers and improves their efficiency.

The two diesels have ample space between them and you see the reason for this when you look aft and see the molding in place for a third water jet. This gives the option to install a centerline TF50 gas turbine to bring the total power up to 13,000 hp. Now you are talking real excitement, and this installation is planned for the next unit that is already under construction. Look for speeds of over 55 knots from this second yacht, speeds that are squarely situated in the Pershing performance territory.

Access to the engine compartment is via a door in the cockpit which leads first to an auxiliary room with the switchboard, watermaker and air conditioning. Forward of this are the crew’s quarters and galley. Stairs lead up from the galley directly into the saloon, close by the dining table, and there is also a dumbwaiter for larger trays. The galley is fitted with all you need for sophisticated meal preparation and the styling, even in these working areas of the yacht, is a close match to the stunning guest areas.

Back aft, the swim platform that protects the water jets is bigger than the average sportsboat. Stairs lead up on both sides to the cockpit, and between them is the garage for the Zodiac tender together with its launching crane. You don’t need to skimp on the water toys on this yacht because there is a second garage that is revealed by raising part of the forward coach roof, housing two jet skis with another launching crane.

The 115 is full of more surprises and one of them comes from opening the door on the right of the saloon entrance. Here there is a stairway winding up to a very private sun deck sitting above the pilothouse. I was trying to determine why there was no sunroof on this yacht similar to those found on other Pershings-this sun deck was the reason. There is another, more public sunpad in the cockpit together with settees and a table, but the upper area is going to be everybody’s favorite.

The sliding saloon doors make an impressive entrance and walking into the saloon takes your breath away. There is none of the rich wood panelling so often found on superyachts, but here the designers have created a beautiful and light, almost minimalistic area with only the dining chairs and the blue leather locker fronts providing color. The settees are white leather, the woodwork a very pale gray-tinted ash, and the sides and overhead a very pale cream.

Quality is enhanced by integral modern artwork above the entrance door and on two of the side window pillars. The relaxing lounge area is aft and a dining table for 10 is forward in a open plan arrangement. Forward at the helm there are three imposing adjustable seats that create what looks like an altar to high performance.

The captain sits in the center chair, which is flanked by the engine and jet controls fitted into the armrests. Here he is master of all he surveys and he really can play tunes with the sensitive machinery controls. In front of him there are seven screens that provide all the information needed for high speed navigation and control, plus sophisticated monitoring systems. The latter have been specially developed by Pershing to control and monitor everything on board except the main engines. The engines have their own MTU dedicated displays and there is a separate display for monitoring the water jet. Large Simrad radar and chart displays provide a full picture of the navigation scene.

A couple of steps down from saloon level takes you into what is virtually a private cinema. Wide lounging settees and chairs face a big flat screen that can be fed from video, DVD or cable or satellite TV. This will be a popular evening relaxing area. Another stairway takes you to the staterooms where the layout is about the only conventional thing on this yacht: a master, a VIP and two twin cabins.

These are all decorated in a similar minimalistic style but with strong colors added through the leather bed bases, the mirror trims and the bright silk bed covers. The result is both modern and restful, with the spacious master stateroom occupying the full beam and featuring an angled bed and deep side windows to give natural light. The VIP stateroom in the bow is almost semi-circular in shape and large enough to have its own settee.

The heads have the same pale gray wood and modern fittings, including hemispherical glass basins. The soles here are wood but have metal strip inserts to give good grip when wet. The extravagant quality of the master stateroom can be seen in the fitting of his-and-her heads for the use of the owners.

The interior of this yacht may be stunning but it is the exterior styling that really sets the scene. The hull has the navy blue and silver combination that was pioneered by Pershing and has since been copied by many. This color scheme complements the series of rising curves that forms the superstructure and, like so much about this design, everything looks well integrated. The practical aspects of the design have been well thought out in most areas, but you only really appreciate the true quality of this yacht out on the water at speed.

We ran the 115 from Cannes to St.Tropez, which is a well-worn path for fast motoryachts. You appreciate one of the qualities of water jet drive with the very delicate maneuvering that is possible with this big yacht. Despite her size you can inch her forward or sideways delicately close to the dock, yet she will spin like a top when you need a quick response. It takes some skill and familiarity with the controls to get to this level of control but the effort is well worthwhile.

Out at sea the response is immediate and thrilling. The thrust from the jets powers the yacht onto plane and keeps it accelerating right up to its terminal velocity. The lack of vibration is impressive, and steering control is delicate and precise when you switch from the steerable joystick controls to the wheel steering. For trim adjustment, the 115 uses the latest interceptor system rather than trim tabs and these give an immediate response that reduces the adjustment period.

On our run down to St.Tropez we had a race with the TGV high-speed train along the coast. The train won that one, but there was no doubt we were fastest on the water that day. Pershing has found just the right balance in this yacht. This design has all the style you want to impress others, both inside and out, yet this is combined with very comfortable living on board. As for performance, 40 knots will meet most requirements but if you want to outrun everything on the water then you can always invest in the gas turbine option. Then maybe, you might even beat that train.

Contact: Marine Max, (888) 71-YACHT; www.marinemax.com .

Click here to read more about Pershing.

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Pershing 115 yacht for sale

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PERSHING 115 GAS TURBINE

Part of the Pershing 115 series, this super yacht has impressive performance - triple water jet propulsion MTU  engines generating 12,500 hp give her a maximum speed of 50 knots and cruising speed of 40 knots. Traveling at 45 knots she has a range of 300 nautical miles.

She is one of the finest Pershing 115 ever built & features the 3700hp Gas Turbine on top of 2 MTU 16V4000 engines powering Kamewa Water Jets. Only 200hrs since MOH w/ 1500 total original.  

Engines hours 2323 , generators 6000.

The 35m. "REBOOT" is part of the groundbreaking Pershing 115 series that has marked the world of high-performance world in a way that very few have. Built in composite in 2004 under the name "DON'T TOUCH", this iconic yacht was the first of a very successful series of 11 yachts built in total by Pershing. Her twin MTU 16V4000 series diesel engines (total horse power of 7200) transmit through Kamewa waterjets to allow this 189 gross ton maxi-yacht speeds of up to 40 knots. Just off an extensive technical and cosmetic refit, she is ready to be experienced by the most demanding performer.

INTERESTED IN Pershing 115 "REBOOT" ?

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Pershing 115 Yachts for Sale

Pershing 115 for sale, discover our yachts for sale, take five $6,850,000 | 25.55m.

$6,850,000| 25.55m 2021 PERSHING Mega Yachts

SILVER BULLET $6,984,450 | 25.55m | 7 Guests

Silver bullet.

$6,984,450| 25.55m | 7 Guests 2022 PERSHING Mega Yachts

SURVIVOR $5,955,733 | 25.55m | 8 Guests

$5,955,733| 25.55m | 8 Guests 2022 PERSHING Mega Yachts

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$6,850,000| 24.38m 2021 PERSHING Mega Yachts

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Pershing has been designing, producing and marketing luxury open motor yachts for almost 30 years, becoming one of the leading brands in the Made in Italy fibreglass open yacht sector

The pershing range stands out for its superior performance, continuous stylistic development, top quality materials and painstakingly designed interiors that offer ultimate comfort. advanced construction methods, powerful engines reaching 7400 mhp and the use of surface propellers , hydrojets and gas turbines all combine to give pershing yachts a distinctively sporting trim and up to 50 knot peak speeds..

Pershing yachts are produced in the Mondolfo shipyard (located right in front of the original yard) , a futuristic site of 53,000 square metres – out of which more than 36,000 are open air – designed by the architect Sandro Sartini . This is not just a production site: this is a striking scenario, which perfectly matches beauty, technology, functionality, and dream, a space painstakingly designed for enhancing the continuous development of the range, also in terms of yacht sizes.

The new production site features a large and innovative painting booth of 4400 sq. m, where boats are dry painted. The test basin (33 m long, 7.5 m wide and 2.3 m deep) is used for all hydraulic tests (engines, exhausts, bilges, and generators) and for waterproofing tests of yachts. The travel lift, with a carrying capacity of 130 tons, completes activities with ship haulage and launching in the test basin. The brand is in constant search for new ideas and new paths for a further international growth. Pershing stands out for its capacity to customize its models according to the different needs of any new market worldwide.

The motor yacht PERSHING 115/2 is a 35 metre 115 (foot) well sized composite vessel which was newly built at Pershing (Ferretti Group) and devised by Ferretti Group Engineering Division . Sleeping 10 passengers and 4 crew members, motor yacht PERSHING 115/2 was named 115/2 .

The naval architecture office that made the design with respect to the yacht is Ferretti Group Engineering Division . Further, the interior designing was sucessful creation of Fulvio De Simoni . The Pershing 115 motor yacht combines capable sea going qualities with a very impressive cruising speed. The Pershing 115 is fitted with engines varying in size depending on the boat and they range from 3,700 hp and an impressive 42 knots cruising speed to 5,000 hp gas turbine and a seriously fast 55 knots cruising speed! The Perishing 115 combines this superior performance with comfortable conditions and sleek attractive lines.

The Range & Speeds – Main Engines On M/Y PERSHING 115

Powered by twin MTU / TEXTRON LYCOMING gas turbine engines, PERSHING 115/2 will attain a top speed of 55 knots. Coupled to the PERSHING 115/2 engines are twin water jets.

The Guest Accommodation

The good sized luxury yacht motor yacht PERSHING 115/2 can accommodate as many as 10 people and 4 crew members.

Superyacht Name: Motor Yacht PERSHING 115/2 Ex: 115/2

Built By: Pershing SpA (Ferretti Group)

Length Overall: 35.07 metres / 115 feet

Waterline Length: 28.13 (92.3 ft)

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40 facts about elektrostal.

Written by Lanette Mayes

Modified & Updated: 02 Mar 2024

Reviewed by Jessica Corbett

Elektrostal is a vibrant city located in the Moscow Oblast region of Russia. With a rich history, stunning architecture, and a thriving community, Elektrostal is a city that has much to offer. Whether you are a history buff, nature enthusiast, or simply curious about different cultures, Elektrostal is sure to captivate you.

This article will provide you with 40 fascinating facts about Elektrostal, giving you a better understanding of why this city is worth exploring. From its origins as an industrial hub to its modern-day charm, we will delve into the various aspects that make Elektrostal a unique and must-visit destination.

So, join us as we uncover the hidden treasures of Elektrostal and discover what makes this city a true gem in the heart of Russia.

Key Takeaways:

• Elektrostal, known as the “Motor City of Russia,” is a vibrant and growing city with a rich industrial history, offering diverse cultural experiences and a strong commitment to environmental sustainability.
• With its convenient location near Moscow, Elektrostal provides a picturesque landscape, vibrant nightlife, and a range of recreational activities, making it an ideal destination for residents and visitors alike.

Known as the “Motor City of Russia.”

Elektrostal, a city located in the Moscow Oblast region of Russia, earned the nickname “Motor City” due to its significant involvement in the automotive industry.

Home to the Elektrostal Metallurgical Plant.

Elektrostal is renowned for its metallurgical plant, which has been producing high-quality steel and alloys since its establishment in 1916.

Boasts a rich industrial heritage.

Elektrostal has a long history of industrial development, contributing to the growth and progress of the region.

Founded in 1916.

The city of Elektrostal was founded in 1916 as a result of the construction of the Elektrostal Metallurgical Plant.

Located approximately 50 kilometers east of Moscow.

Elektrostal is situated in close proximity to the Russian capital, making it easily accessible for both residents and visitors.

Known for its vibrant cultural scene.

Elektrostal is home to several cultural institutions, including museums, theaters, and art galleries that showcase the city’s rich artistic heritage.

A popular destination for nature lovers.

Surrounded by picturesque landscapes and forests, Elektrostal offers ample opportunities for outdoor activities such as hiking, camping, and birdwatching.

Hosts the annual Elektrostal City Day celebrations.

Every year, Elektrostal organizes festive events and activities to celebrate its founding, bringing together residents and visitors in a spirit of unity and joy.

Has a population of approximately 160,000 people.

Elektrostal is home to a diverse and vibrant community of around 160,000 residents, contributing to its dynamic atmosphere.

Boasts excellent education facilities.

The city is known for its well-established educational institutions, providing quality education to students of all ages.

A center for scientific research and innovation.

Elektrostal serves as an important hub for scientific research, particularly in the fields of metallurgy, materials science, and engineering.

Surrounded by picturesque lakes.

The city is blessed with numerous beautiful lakes, offering scenic views and recreational opportunities for locals and visitors alike.

Well-connected transportation system.

Elektrostal benefits from an efficient transportation network, including highways, railways, and public transportation options, ensuring convenient travel within and beyond the city.

Famous for its traditional Russian cuisine.

Food enthusiasts can indulge in authentic Russian dishes at numerous restaurants and cafes scattered throughout Elektrostal.

Home to notable architectural landmarks.

Elektrostal boasts impressive architecture, including the Church of the Transfiguration of the Lord and the Elektrostal Palace of Culture.

Offers a wide range of recreational facilities.

Residents and visitors can enjoy various recreational activities, such as sports complexes, swimming pools, and fitness centers, enhancing the overall quality of life.

Provides a high standard of healthcare.

Elektrostal is equipped with modern medical facilities, ensuring residents have access to quality healthcare services.

Home to the Elektrostal History Museum.

The Elektrostal History Museum showcases the city’s fascinating past through exhibitions and displays.

A hub for sports enthusiasts.

Elektrostal is passionate about sports, with numerous stadiums, arenas, and sports clubs offering opportunities for athletes and spectators.

Celebrates diverse cultural festivals.

Throughout the year, Elektrostal hosts a variety of cultural festivals, celebrating different ethnicities, traditions, and art forms.

Electric power played a significant role in its early development.

Elektrostal owes its name and initial growth to the establishment of electric power stations and the utilization of electricity in the industrial sector.

Boasts a thriving economy.

The city’s strong industrial base, coupled with its strategic location near Moscow, has contributed to Elektrostal’s prosperous economic status.

Houses the Elektrostal Drama Theater.

The Elektrostal Drama Theater is a cultural centerpiece, attracting theater enthusiasts from far and wide.

Popular destination for winter sports.

Elektrostal’s proximity to ski resorts and winter sport facilities makes it a favorite destination for skiing, snowboarding, and other winter activities.

Promotes environmental sustainability.

Elektrostal prioritizes environmental protection and sustainability, implementing initiatives to reduce pollution and preserve natural resources.

Home to renowned educational institutions.

Elektrostal is known for its prestigious schools and universities, offering a wide range of academic programs to students.

Committed to cultural preservation.

The city values its cultural heritage and takes active steps to preserve and promote traditional customs, crafts, and arts.

Hosts an annual International Film Festival.

The Elektrostal International Film Festival attracts filmmakers and cinema enthusiasts from around the world, showcasing a diverse range of films.

Encourages entrepreneurship and innovation.

Elektrostal supports aspiring entrepreneurs and fosters a culture of innovation, providing opportunities for startups and business development.

Offers a range of housing options.

Elektrostal provides diverse housing options, including apartments, houses, and residential complexes, catering to different lifestyles and budgets.

Home to notable sports teams.

Elektrostal is proud of its sports legacy, with several successful sports teams competing at regional and national levels.

Boasts a vibrant nightlife scene.

Residents and visitors can enjoy a lively nightlife in Elektrostal, with numerous bars, clubs, and entertainment venues.

Promotes cultural exchange and international relations.

Elektrostal actively engages in international partnerships, cultural exchanges, and diplomatic collaborations to foster global connections.

Surrounded by beautiful nature reserves.

Nearby nature reserves, such as the Barybino Forest and Luchinskoye Lake, offer opportunities for nature enthusiasts to explore and appreciate the region’s biodiversity.

Commemorates historical events.

The city pays tribute to significant historical events through memorials, monuments, and exhibitions, ensuring the preservation of collective memory.

Promotes sports and youth development.

Elektrostal invests in sports infrastructure and programs to encourage youth participation, health, and physical fitness.

Hosts annual cultural and artistic festivals.

Throughout the year, Elektrostal celebrates its cultural diversity through festivals dedicated to music, dance, art, and theater.

Provides a picturesque landscape for photography enthusiasts.

The city’s scenic beauty, architectural landmarks, and natural surroundings make it a paradise for photographers.

Connects to Moscow via a direct train line.

The convenient train connection between Elektrostal and Moscow makes commuting between the two cities effortless.

A city with a bright future.

Elektrostal continues to grow and develop, aiming to become a model city in terms of infrastructure, sustainability, and quality of life for its residents.

In conclusion, Elektrostal is a fascinating city with a rich history and a vibrant present. From its origins as a center of steel production to its modern-day status as a hub for education and industry, Elektrostal has plenty to offer both residents and visitors. With its beautiful parks, cultural attractions, and proximity to Moscow, there is no shortage of things to see and do in this dynamic city. Whether you’re interested in exploring its historical landmarks, enjoying outdoor activities, or immersing yourself in the local culture, Elektrostal has something for everyone. So, next time you find yourself in the Moscow region, don’t miss the opportunity to discover the hidden gems of Elektrostal.

Q: What is the population of Elektrostal?

A: As of the latest data, the population of Elektrostal is approximately XXXX.

Q: How far is Elektrostal from Moscow?

A: Elektrostal is located approximately XX kilometers away from Moscow.

Q: Are there any famous landmarks in Elektrostal?

A: Yes, Elektrostal is home to several notable landmarks, including XXXX and XXXX.

Q: What industries are prominent in Elektrostal?

A: Elektrostal is known for its steel production industry and is also a center for engineering and manufacturing.

Q: Are there any universities or educational institutions in Elektrostal?

A: Yes, Elektrostal is home to XXXX University and several other educational institutions.

Q: What are some popular outdoor activities in Elektrostal?

A: Elektrostal offers several outdoor activities, such as hiking, cycling, and picnicking in its beautiful parks.

Q: Is Elektrostal well-connected in terms of transportation?

A: Yes, Elektrostal has good transportation links, including trains and buses, making it easily accessible from nearby cities.

Q: Are there any annual events or festivals in Elektrostal?

A: Yes, Elektrostal hosts various events and festivals throughout the year, including XXXX and XXXX.

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Our commitment to delivering trustworthy and engaging content is at the heart of what we do. Each fact on our site is contributed by real users like you, bringing a wealth of diverse insights and information. To ensure the highest standards of accuracy and reliability, our dedicated editors meticulously review each submission. This process guarantees that the facts we share are not only fascinating but also credible. Trust in our commitment to quality and authenticity as you explore and learn with us.

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Find Pershing 115 boats for sale in your area & across the world on YachtWorld. Offering the best selection of Pershing boats to choose from.

Astonishingly, Pershing boss Tilli Antonelli didn't think 7,400 hp would be quite enough for some owners, so each 115 is built with a central molded-in stern pod, ready to accommodate a TF50 gas turbine. The extra 5,600 hp this brings to the party should push the 115's top speed up to around 55 knots (63 mph), with cruising speeds in the high 40s.

16th May 2013 - The tenth hull of Pershing 115', flagship of the brand's fleet, among the world's leading manufacturers of high performance open motor yachts from 15 to 35 metres, was launched in the last few days at Marina dei Cesari, in Fano (Italy). The new launch represents an important result for the historic seat of the brand, the ...

Our website offers a wide selection of Pershing 115 Yachts for sale. For years the flagship of the Pershing the 115 is a revered superyacht capable of astonishing performances. The yacht reaches a speed above the 40 knows zooming from Miami to the Bahamas in the blink of an eye. She is the perfect South Florida yacht to enjoy a weekend in the ...

Sprinting into the port with the striking new, 40-knot Pershing 115 did not quite have the same impact, but this beautiful yacht did stop onlookers in their tracks as they stood and stared. With the 115, Pershing joins a select band of boatbuilders who are going over the 100-foot mark, taking a quantum leap from the 88-foot former flagship ...

The yacht broker Arcon Yachts offers to buy a motor yacht Pershing 115. Year of construction - 2005/2011; length - 35.4 m; price - €2,790,000.

The 35.37m/116'1" open yacht 'Pershing 115/11' was built by Pershing in Italy. Her interior is styled by Italian designer design house Fulvio de Simoni and she was completed in 2016. This luxury vessel's exterior design is the work of Fulvio de Simoni. Range & Performance.

The 35m. "REBOOT" is part of the groundbreaking Pershing 115 series that has marked the world of high-performance world in a way that very few have. Built in composite in 2004 under the name "DON'T TOUCH", this iconic yacht was the first of a very successful series of 11 yachts built in total by Pershing. Her twin MTU 16V4000 series diesel ...

Newport. +1 (401) 239-2320. Luxury Yachts For Purchase. Worldwide Yachts For Sale. Trawlers Yachts. Expedition Yachts. Sport Fisherman Yachts. Catamaran Yachts. Purchase Inquiry Form.

The Pershing 115 yacht interiors are contemporary and calming and include accommodation for up to ten guests across five cabins, comprising a master suite, two VIP staterooms and two twins, with a crew of five also housed on board. Performance-wise, power to the Pershing 115 yacht is provided by twin MTU 16V 4000 M90 3,700 hp diesel engines ...

Pershing 115. To pass one mile at top speed, the Pershing 115 spends 34 liters of diesel fuel. Perhaps to speak of such indecent things when it comes to such impressive yachts. However, when thinking about how two motors 3510 horses dispersed the boat, weighing 154 tons to 36 nodes, such thoughts involuntarily come to mind.

The Pershing 115 motor yacht combines capable sea going qualities with a very impressive cruising speed. The Pershing 115 is fitted with engines varying in size depending on the boat and they range from 3,700 hp and an impressive 42 knots cruising speed to 5,000 hp gas turbine and a seriously fast 55 knots cruising speed!

Find Pershing 115' boats for sale in your area & across the world on YachtWorld. Offering the best selection of Pershing boats to choose from.

Pershing 115 boats for sale 8 Boats Available. Currency $ - USD - US Dollar Sort Sort Order List View Gallery View Submit. Advertisement. Save This Boat. Pershing 115 . Naples, Italy, Napoli, Italy. 2010. $5,714,294 Seller Ventura UK Limited 96. 1. Contact +44 (0)20 7495 2330. ×. New Arrival. Save This Boat. Pershing 115 ...

Pershing boats for sale on YachtWorld are offered at a swath of prices from $121,268 on the lower-cost segment, with costs up to $16,578,703 for the most luxurious yachts. What Pershing model is the best? Some of the best-known Pershing models presently listed include: 62, 8X, 5x, 50 and 76. Pershing models are available through yacht brokers ...

Find Pershing 115 for sale on YachtWorld Europe's largest marketplace for boats & yachts. We connect over 10 million boat buyers and sellers each year!

Pershing Yachts Surface. Surface. Pershing news & events Pershing news & events . 21 - 24.03.2024. 21 - 24.03.2024. Palm Beach International Boat Show 2024. Palm Beach International Boat Show 2024. Read more. Share on: 19.03.2024 Ferretti Group at the Palm Beach International Boat Show with six stunning boats. ...

Kismet. 122m | Lurssen. from $3,000,000 p/week. This is a small selection of the global luxury yacht charter fleet, with 3570 motor yachts, sail yachts, explorer yachts and catamarans to choose from including superyachts and megayachts, the world is your oyster.

In 1954, Elemash began to produce fuel assemblies, including for the first nuclear power plant in the world, located in Obninsk. In 1959, the facility produced the fuel for the Soviet Union's first icebreaker. Its fuel assembly production became serial in 1965 and automated in 1982. 1. Today, Elemash is one of the largest TVEL nuclear fuel ...

Find company research, competitor information, contact details & financial data for BETA GIDA, OOO of Elektrostal, Moscow region. Get the latest business insights from Dun & Bradstreet.

Mission Inn Museum Bukit Ampang Lester Park Mount Huashan Ostional National Wildlife Refuge Wiener Stadthalle Long Island Rail Road Animate Ikebukuro Flagship Store Boston Water Taxi Torrox Market Patom organic village farm Thai cultural work shop Floating market tour bangkok Victoria to Seattle High-Speed Passenger Ferry: ONE-WAY Whale Watching in Kaikoura by Boat 2 hours Boat Rental Lake ...

Lanette Mayes. Elektrostal is a vibrant city located in the Moscow Oblast region of Russia. With a rich history, stunning architecture, and a thriving community, Elektrostal is a city that has much to offer. Whether you are a history buff, nature enthusiast, or simply curious about different cultures, Elektrostal is sure to captivate you.

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28-29 october - academy trophy, 4x4 championships, summer series: overall, 29 september - 1 october - british keelboat league finals, 24 september - ancient mariners race, 23 september - denise cartlidge ladies race, 15 - 17 september - summer series: september regatta, 9-10 september - women's open keelboat championships & women's british keelboat league, 2-3 september - passage race: yarmouth, 19-20 august - passage race: poole, 8-9 july - summer series: salcombe gin july regatta, 15-17 june 2023 - key yachting j cup regatta, 10-11 june 2023 - passage series: portsmouth, 4-5 june 2023 - summer series: champagne charlie june regatta, 26-27 may - deauville race, 13-14 may - etchells bedrock trophy, 7 - 8 may 2023 - summer series: north sails may regatta, 29 - 1 may 2023 - solent cruiser race, 22-23 april - passage race: chichester, 14 - 15 january - hamble winter icebreaker regatta.

Black Group

White Group

IRC Results

BKL Results

Result Files

Solent Cruiser Race Results  (.pdf, 53.556 KiB)

Royal Southern Summer Series: Overall

Passage series: overall, central cans series overall, 29 - 30 oct 2022 - the academy trophy, 22-22 oct 2022 - doublehanded cup, 21-23 oct 2022 - rya national match racing championships grand final, 15 - 16 oct 2022 - ioca uk optimist end of season championships, 30 sep -2 oct 2022 - british keelboat league finals, 24-25 sep 2022 - royal southern summer series: land union september regatta, 3 sep 2022 - denise cartlidge ladies' race, 13-14 aug 2022 - passage series: poole & back, 16-17 jul 2022 - women's open keelboat championships & women's british keelboat league, 9-10 jul 2022 - royal southern summer series: salcombe gin july regatta, 2 jul 2022 - central cans series: independence day tumbler, 1-3 jul 2022 - sb20 uk national championships, 18 jun 2022 - central cans series: summer solstice salver, 11-12 jun 2022 - passage series: gunwharf quays, 4-5 jun 2022 - royal southern summer series: champagne charlie platinum jubilee regatta, 19-20 may 2022 - interservice match racing championships, 21 may 2022 - central cans series: spring saucer, 14-15 may 2022 - x-yachts solent cup, 14-15 may 2022 - international etchells bedrock trophy, 7-8 may 2022 - royal southern summer series: north sails may regatta, 23-24 apr 2022 - passage series: hamble-yarmouth cup, 9 - 9 apr 2022 - central cans series: freedom cup, 26-27 mar 2022 - optimist spring cup, 19-20 mar 2022 - boysterous cup 2022, 29 jan 2022 - academy frostbite series 2022.

Summer Series Overall White Group After Sept Regatta  (.pdf, 624.032 KiB)

Summer Series Overall Black Group After Sept Regatta  (.pdf, 1.247 MiB)

Passage Series 2022 Results  (.pdf, 49.729 KiB)

Central Cans Series Overall Results  (.pdf, 138.155 KiB)

Results  (.pdf, 402.635 KiB)

Doublehanded Cup Results  (.pdf, 397.553 KiB)

Result Links

Inter Services Match Racing Championships Results  (.pdf, 149.689 KiB)

Sports Class Results After R5  (.pdf, 71.652 KiB)

Family Class Results After R3  (.pdf, 25.66 KiB)

Rsrnyc Optimist Spring Cup 2022 Results  (.pdf, 61.347 KiB)

Boysterous Cup Results  (.pdf, 74.821 KiB)

Academy Frostbite Series 2022 Results  (.pdf, 15.56 KiB)

17 - 19 Sep 2021 - Summer Series 4 - Land Union September Regatta & HP30 Nationals

10 - 12 sep 2021 - hamble classics, 28 - 30 aug 2021 - august charity cup, 24 - 25 jul 2021 - pre-cowes week regatta / central solent xod champs, 17 - 25 jul 2021 - central cans series - live results, 10 - 11 jul 2021 - summer series 3 - salcombe gin july regatta, 24 - 26 jun 2021 - the landsail tyres j-cup, 12 - 13 jun 2021 - summer series 2 - june regatta, 5 - 6 jun 2021 - women’s open keelboat championship, 29 - 30 may 2021 - x-yachts solent cup, 8 - 9 may 2021 - summer series 1 - may regatta, 17 - 28 jan 2021 rsrnyc esailing winter series - rya winter club championships 2021.

Cumulative Results

Central Cans Series Results (change tabs for different events)

Cumulative Results – Live

WOKC Live Results

BKL Women’s Championship Live Results

Family Class Race 1 Results  (.pdf, 178.17 KiB)

Family Class Race 2 Results  (.pdf, 127.68 KiB)

Family Class Race 3 Pursuit Results  (.pdf, 115.57 KiB)

Family Class Overall Results After 3 Races  (.pdf, 148.629 KiB)

eSailing Winter Series Event & Overall Results – Change tabs to view different events & overalls

Royal Southern Esailing Winter Series 2021 Responses Overall Results  (.pdf, 863.775 KiB)

12 - 12 Dec 2020 - Academy Winter Racing

17 - 18 oct 2020 academy trophy 2020, 19 - 20 sep 2020 summer series 4 - land union september regatta, 17 - 20 sep 2020 sb20 national championships, 12 - 13 sep 2020 passage race series: hamble scramble, 11 - 13 sep 2020 j/70 national championships 2020, 5 - 6 sep 2020 etchells bedrock trophy, 22 - 23 aug 2020 hamble classics 2020, 19 - 19 jul 2020 fortnightly family-friendly race 4: the great return race, 2 - 2 aug 2020 fortnightly family-friendly race 5: the final fortnightly, 12 - 12 jul 2020 fortnightly family-friendly race 3: belated independence day, 7 - 7 jun 2020 fortnightly family-friendly race 1: hamble cup, 23 - 30 apr 2020 esailing spring club championship, 13 - 13 apr 2020 open e-ster regatta, 9 - 16 apr 2020 esailing series, 14 - 15 mar 2020 the boysterous cup 2020, 25 - 28 mar 2020 academy frostbite series 2020.

Academy Winter Series Live Results

Academy Trophy 2020 Results  (.pdf, 144.721 KiB)

Overall Results

2020 SB20 UK Sprint Championship – Thursday 17th September

2020 SB20 UK Open & National Championship – Friday 18th – Sunday 20th September

Individual & Overall Results

Cumulative Race Results

Saturday Fun Race Results

Regatta Results

Family Friendly Fortnightly Overall Series Results  (.pdf, 111.632 KiB)

Belated Independence Day Results V2  (.pdf, 104.053 KiB)

Hamble Cup Results  (.pdf, 98.162 KiB)

eSailing Spring Club Championship – Qualifying Round

eSailing Spring Club Championship – Club Final

E Ster Regatta Results No Medal Race  (.pdf, 89.47 KiB)

eSailing Series #1 – 9th April 2020

eSailing Series #2 – 16th April 2020

eSailing Series Overall

Boysterous Cup 2019 Race By Race After 17  (.pdf, 200.961 KiB)

Boysterous Cup 2019 Overall After 17  (.pdf, 252.072 KiB)

Academy Frostbite Series 2020 Race Results  (.pdf, 104.376 KiB)

Academy Frostbite Series 2020 Overall Results  (.pdf, 89.726 KiB)

9 – 7 Dec 2019

Academy Winter Series 2019

• Academy Winter Series Event 1 Provisional Results (.pdf, 105.548 KiB)
• Academy Winter Series Event 2 Provisional Results Race By Race (.pdf, 112.542 KiB)
• Academy Winter Series Event 3 Provisional Results Race By Race (.pdf, 110.998 KiB)
• Academy Winter Series Provisional Event Results (.pdf, 99.012 KiB)
• Academy Winter Series Provisional Overall (.pdf, 98.412 KiB)

26 – 27 Oct 2019

Royal Southern Academy Trophy 2019

• Academy Trophy 2019 Overall Results (.pdf, 418.258 KiB)

11 – 13 Oct 2019

FAST 40+ Round 6 2019

• Fast 40 Round 6 Results Cumulative (.pdf, 99.621 KiB)
• Fast 40 Round 6 Results Race By Race (.pdf, 104.107 KiB)

14 – 15 Sep 2019

Land Union September Regatta supported by Doyle Sails

8 – 8 Sep 2019

Ancient Mariners Race 2019

2019 Results Of Ancient Mariners Race (.pdf, 118.752 KiB)

7 – 7 Sep 2019

Denise Cartlidge Ladies Race 2019

2019 Results Of Ladies Race (.pdf, 121.59 KiB)

18 – 20 Jul 2019

Landsail Tyres J-Cup 2019

J/70 UK Class Training Event 2019

13 – 14 Jul 2019

Summer Series High Points Series – Overall After July Regatta

Summer Series 3 – Champagne Charlie July Regatta

Summer Series 3, Champagne Charlie July Regatta – Yachtscoring Results

7 – 7 Jul 2019

The Vital Spark Pursuit Race 2019

Pursuit Race Results (.pdf, 145.574 KiB)

22 – 18 Aug 2019

Passage Race Series Results as of 23/08/19 – Including Deauville Race, Passage Race 1 (Round Wight by Night) and Passage Race 2 (Poole & Back)

Passage Series Overall Results 230819 (.pdf, 50.268 KiB)

22 – 23 Jun 2019

British Keelboat League – Youth Qualifier

Bkl Youth Qualifier Final Standings (.pdf, 511.851 KiB)

Bkl Youth Qualifier Race By Race Results (.pdf, 590.5 KiB)

15 – 16 Jun 2019

Summer Series High Points Series – Overall After June Regatta

Summer Series 2 – RigIt June Regatta

Summer Series 2, RigIt June Regatta – Yachtscoring Results

18 – 19 May 2019

Summer Series 1 – Antigua Sailing Week May Regatta

Summer Series 1, Antigua Sailing Week May Regatta – Yachtscoring Results

20 – 22 Apr 2019

Solent Cruiser Race 2019

26 – 16 Mar 2019

Royal Southern Academy Frostbite Series 2019

Academy Frostbite Series 2019 Final Results (.pdf, 210.972 KiB)

1 – 9 Nov 2019

IRC Solent Championships Results 2019

Irc Solent Championship Results 2019 (.pdf, 11.48 KiB)

15 – 16 Sep 2018

The Royal Southern Hamble Classics

All results other than Gaffer 1

Gaffer 1 Overall Results (.pdf, 102.855 KiB)

Gaffer 1 Race 1 (.pdf, 223.837 KiB)

Gaffer 1 Race 3 (.pdf, 233.295 KiB)

8 – 9 Sep 2018

Doyle Sails September Regatta, Inclusive of the Performance 40 Class Nationals

Event Results

20 – 22 Jul 2018

J/70 Nationals

2018 J/70 Nationals

14 – 15 Jul 2018

Charles Heidsieck July Regatta

• Charles Heidsieck July Regatta Cumulative (.pdf, 136.594 KiB)
• Charles Heidsieck July Regatta R1 (.pdf, 135.789 KiB)
• Charles Heidsieck July Regatta R2 (.pdf, 133.376 KiB)
• Charles Heidsieck July Regatta R3 (.pdf, 137.174 KiB)

Charles Heidsieck July Regatta R4 (.pdf, 137.062 KiB)

30 – 1 Jul 2018

RYA national Match Racing Championships – Qualifier 1

The Poole and Back Passage Race

2018 Passage Series Results

23 – 24 Jun 2018

Harken June Regatta

• Harken June Regatta Cumulative (.pdf, 160 KiB)
• Harken June Regatta R1 (.pdf, 160 KiB)
• Harken June Regatta R2 (.pdf, 160 KiB)
• Harken June Regatta R3 (.pdf, 160 KiB)
• Harken June Regatta R4 (.pdf, 156 KiB)
• Harken June Regatta R5 (.pdf, 156 KiB)
• Harken June Regatta R6 (.pdf, 144 KiB)

25 – 26 May 2018

2018 Cowes – Deauville Race

12 – 13 May 2018

North Sails May Regatta

Harkenmayregattacumulative (.pdf, 168 KiB)

Harkenmayregattar1 (.pdf, 144 KiB)

Harkenmayregattar2 (.pdf, 140 KiB)

Harkenmayregattar3 (.pdf, 140 KiB)

5 – 6 May 2018

X-Yachts Solent Cup

2018 X-Yachts Solent Cup

Family Overall (.pdf, 205.568 KiB)

Family Pursuit (.pdf, 169.911 KiB)

Family R1 (.pdf, 171.805 KiB)

27 – 29 Apr 2018

Fast 40+ Race Circuit – Round 1

• Charles Heidsieck July Regatta R4 (.pdf, 137.062 KiB) 30 – 1 Jul 2018RYA national Match Racing Championships – Qualifier 1
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Beer Club Tolsty Medved

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Field hockey - Dinamo Elektrostal Moscow

Hockey Club Dinamo Elektrostal is a field hockey team from Russia, based in Moscow. The club was founded in 1994.

Dinamo Elektrostal Moscow - Results

2021/2022 2018/2019 2017/2018 2017 2015/2016 2013/2014 2011/2012 2007/2008

Men's Euro Hockey League - Final Round - 2021/2022

Dinamo elektrostal moscow - identity.

• Official name : Hockey Club Dinamo Elektrostal
• Country : Russia
• Location : Moscow
• Founded : 1994
• Wikipedia link : http://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinamo_Elektrostal

Dinamo Elektrostal Moscow - Titles, trophies and places of honor

• Best result : First Round in 2021/2022
• Best result : 1st
• 1 times first in 2010
• 1 times second in 2009
• 1 times third in 2017

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The best golf clubs in moscow: luxury, exclusivity, and entertainment.

By Walter Raymond

February 24, 2015

• The Best Golf Clubs in…

In Russia, the western concept of building architecturally beautiful golf courses filled with modern and luxurious amenities has found fertile ground. What was considered a frivolous pastime during the time of the Soviets has become the latest trend for the stylish set. These days, there are countless options around Moscow to practice golf, polo, ski, yachting, and other sports alongside 5-star hotels, luxurious country houses, and magnificent villas.

The game of golf is a sport that requires passion and expertise. It is also part of a culture that considers this pastime a synonym of social prestige and exclusivity. In recent years, the new Russian elite has turned to golf as a vehicle of integration in the era of globalization. Golf courses are also meeting and socializing spaces where Muscovite tycoons can relax and also seal business deals.

Golf Courses in Russia

The Moscow Country Club, Pestovo Golf & Yacht Club, Tseleevo Golf & Polo Club, and Zavidovo Golf Club, PGA National Russia are some of the most exclusive and elegant golf courses in Russia. Some of them have made it to the list of Top 15 golf clubs in the world, a source of great prestige for the country.

Moscow Country Club Moscow Country Club

The first 18-hole golf course built in Russia, Moscow Country Club, hosts the exclusive PGA European Tour. Located just eight miles from the city center, this luxurious facility was created by architect Robert Trent Jones Jr . The design takes advantage of a typical Russian birch and spruce forest to provide a natural environment of extraordinary beauty.

Pestovo Golf & Yacht Club Pestovo Golf & Yacht Club

The Pestovo Golf & Yacht Club is 18 miles from the heart of Moscow, close to historical monuments from the 17th and 18th centuries. Designed by famed architects Paul and Dave Thomas , this 18-hole course is part of a complex that includes a yacht club, an equestrian center, and a health and wellness facility. Pestovo Golf & Yacht Club is Russia’s version of a classic country club with multiple attractions.

Tseleevo Golf & Polo Club Tseleevo Golf & Polo Club

This park is among the best in Eastern Europe and was awarded the 2014 World Golf Award as the best golf course in Russia. Located 25 miles from Moscow, it is part of a vast complex featuring an 18-hole golf course, designed by Jack Nicklaus , a polo club and a mountain ski club with four tracks. The design combines classic Scottish, Alpine, and English features in a dreamy landscape.

Zavidovo Golf Club, PGA National Russia Zavidovo Golf Club, PGA National Russia

Less than 60 miles from Moscow, this golf course with a definite Scottish design is the only one in Russia recognized as a PGA (Professional Golfers’ Association) from Britain and Ireland. Located in an ecologically pristine area on the banks of the Volga River, the Zavidovo Golf Club embodies the spirit and appearance of the legendary Scottish golf courses. Its many springs and streams, hills, forests, swamps and lakes justify its reputation as a very demanding circuit. Last year, it entered the exclusive club of the 15 best golf courses in the world.   ■

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SYC Salcombe Gin Regatta National 12 2022

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The Breakfast Club

501 S Main St, Moscow , Idaho 83843 USA

• Independent
• Credit Cards Accepted
• More in Moscow

Learn more about this business on Yelp .

“Breakfast & Lunch among friends”

The Breakfast Club has been a locally-owned Moscow breakfast staple for 12 years. The food is delicious, and the portions are appropriate (not gigantic). They have stuffed biscuits and gravy which is biscuits cut in half with eggs and bacon in the middle, covered in in-house made sausage gravy. If you are ever in Moscow in the wee hours of the morning, this is the place to stop!!!

Reviewed by Melanie B.

Phenomenal!!! We went to Moscow for a quick wkend trip and stumbled upon this spot! The wait was 45 mins (of which needed up being 20 / 30 mins! Nothing but positive things to say about The... Read more

Reviewed by Katrina B.

Great food, Great environment Great prices. I'm not coffee drinker but the coffee bar and the latte they made me was really good. The biscuits and gravy weren't the best but I had assumed as... Read more

Reviewed by Anna S.

A nice breakfast/brunch spot! The ambiance and decorations feel very classic diner though with a slight upscale vibe. We came a few minutes before their brunch was closing but they were still... Read more

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The dates for the Salcombe Town Regatta Dinghy Racing 2024 are Monday 5th - Friday 9th August.

We look forward to seeing you there!

If you purchase a Mill Bay boat park ticket (available from our online shop) please collect a sticker for your boat from the SYC office. (Stickers have to be displayed at all times).

sailwave results Salcombe Town Regatta 2022 ... Salcombe Town Regatta 2022 Salcombe Yacht Club. Competitor List Fleet Class SailNo HelmName CrewName PY Extra Col 1 Extra Col 2; Laser 4.7 156205 Charles Evans 1207 Laser 4.7 180342 Henry Evans 1208 Aero 7 1746 Simon Ballantine ...

sailwave results Salcombe Town Regatta Yawl 2022 ... Salcombe Town Regatta Yawl 2022 Salcombe Yacht Club. STR Yawl Handicap 2022 Yawl Blue Class. Sailed: 4, Discards: 1, To count: 3, Rating system: PY, Entries: 13, Scoring system: Appendix A. Rank Boat Class Sail number Helm

Salcombe Yacht Club Festive Series 2023/24 Eleven competitors, mainly in Solos, turned up for the 1st race of the Salcombe Yacht Club Festive Series 2023/24 on Saturday 23rd December. Despite the forecast westerly breeze, gusting over 30 knots, with Barney Greenhill running proceedings, racing went ahead, with a course comprising three loops of ...

sailwave results SYC Salcombe Gin Regatta Solo 2022 ... SYC Salcombe Gin Regatta Solo 2022 Salcombe Yacht Club. SYC Salcombe Gin Regatta Solo Overall. Sailed: 6, Discards: 1, To count: 5, Rating system: PY, Entries: 28, Scoring system: Appendix A. Rank

Club House. Club House; ROOM HIRE; MENUS - Wine and Food; OPENING HOURS & FOOD; Contact details. Cliff House Cliff Rd Salcombe Devon TQ8 8JQ UK. Phone : 01548 842593 Company No. 10627328 VAT No. 141485869 View on map

Town Regatta Entry's and Results . ... December 2022; March 2022; September 2020; August 2020; June 2020; February 2020; November 2019; August 2019; ... Sail World Monthly e-News Salcombe Yacht Club; Salcombe Yacht Club; Surf Report Salcombe; Tide Chart Salcombe; Watch House Live Wind Guru;

Racing. Salcombe is a beautiful sailing area with dramatic cliffs, golden beaches and unspoilt creeks. Families and friends can enjoy a great spectator sport either from the splendid vantage point of the Yacht Club terrace with a commanding view of the start and finish line or the beautiful golden sandy beaches of the East Portlemouth shore.

Yacht Scoring is a featured packed 100% web based regatta administration and scoring system that simplifies the task of competitor registration, event management, competitor and media communications while providing results in near-real time to competitors and the World following your event on the internet.

sailwave results SYC Salcombe Gin Regatta Morning Fleets 2022 ... SYC Salcombe Gin Regatta Morning Fleets 2022 Salcombe Yacht Club: Salcombe Gin Regatta Morning Fleets 2022 Enterprise Fleet. Sailed: 6, Discards: 1, To count: 5, Rating system: PY, Entries: 7, Scoring system: Appendix A ... Club Helm Crew Name PY R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 R6 Total Nett; 1st ...

Related Articles Salcombe Yacht Club Festive Series 2023/24 Three days of very different racing before and after Christmas Eleven competitors, mainly in Solos, turned up for the first race of the Salcombe Yacht Club Festive Series 2023/24 on Saturday 23rd December. Despite the forecast westerly breeze, gusting over 30 knots, racing went ahead.

Wednesday. 7:00 AM for 8:00 AM. £10. Pre-registration necessary, either on Saturday in the Cliff House Gardens from 17:00 - 19:00, or on Sunday on Island Street from 12:00 - 14:00.

Yacht Scoring is a web based regatta management, regatta administration and regatta scoring system that simplifies the task of competitor registration, event management, competitor and media communications while providing results in near-real time to competitors and the World following your event on the internet.

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why is literature review important to research

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Why is it important to do a literature review in research?

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 “A substantive, thorough, sophisticated literature review is a precondition for doing substantive, thorough, sophisticated research”. Boote and Baile 2005

Authors of manuscripts treat writing a literature review as a routine work or a mere formality. But a seasoned one knows the purpose and importance of a well-written literature review.  Since it is one of the basic needs for researches at any level, they have to be done vigilantly. Only then the reader will know that the basics of research have not been neglected.

The aim of any literature review is to summarize and synthesize the arguments and ideas of existing knowledge in a particular field without adding any new contributions.   Being built on existing knowledge they help the researcher to even turn the wheels of the topic of research.  It is possible only with profound knowledge of what is wrong in the existing findings in detail to overpower them.  For other researches, the literature review gives the direction to be headed for its success. 

The common perception of literature review and reality:

As per the common belief, literature reviews are only a summary of the sources related to the research. And many authors of scientific manuscripts believe that they are only surveys of what are the researches are done on the chosen topic.  But on the contrary, it uses published information from pertinent and relevant sources like

• Scholarly books
• Scientific papers
• Latest studies in the field
• Established school of thoughts
• Relevant articles from renowned scientific journals

and many more for a field of study or theory or a particular problem to do the following:

• Summarize into a brief account of all information
• Synthesize the information by restructuring and reorganizing
• Critical evaluation of a concept or a school of thought or ideas
• Familiarize the authors to the extent of knowledge in the particular field
• Encapsulate
• Compare & contrast

By doing the above on the relevant information, it provides the reader of the scientific manuscript with the following for a better understanding of it:

• It establishes the authors’  in-depth understanding and knowledge of their field subject
• It gives the background of the research
• Portrays the scientific manuscript plan of examining the research result
• Illuminates on how the knowledge has changed within the field
• Highlights what has already been done in a particular field
• Information of the generally accepted facts, emerging and current state of the topic of research
• Identifies the research gap that is still unexplored or under-researched fields
• Demonstrates how the research fits within a larger field of study
• Provides an overview of the sources explored during the research of a particular topic

Importance of literature review in research:

The importance of literature review in scientific manuscripts can be condensed into an analytical feature to enable the multifold reach of its significance.  It adds value to the legitimacy of the research in many ways:

• Provides the interpretation of existing literature in light of updated developments in the field to help in establishing the consistency in knowledge and relevancy of existing materials
• It helps in calculating the impact of the latest information in the field by mapping their progress of knowledge.
• It brings out the dialects of contradictions between various thoughts within the field to establish facts
• The research gaps scrutinized initially are further explored to establish the latest facts of theories to add value to the field
• Indicates the current research place in the schema of a particular field
• Provides information for relevancy and coherency to check the research
• Apart from elucidating the continuance of knowledge, it also points out areas that require further investigation and thus aid as a starting point of any future research
• Justifies the research and sets up the research question
• Sets up a theoretical framework comprising the concepts and theories of the research upon which its success can be judged
• Helps to adopt a more appropriate methodology for the research by examining the strengths and weaknesses of existing research in the same field
• Increases the significance of the results by comparing it with the existing literature
• Provides a point of reference by writing the findings in the scientific manuscript
• Helps to get the due credit from the audience for having done the fact-finding and fact-checking mission in the scientific manuscripts
• The more the reference of relevant sources of it could increase more of its trustworthiness with the readers
• Helps to prevent plagiarism by tailoring and uniquely tweaking the scientific manuscript not to repeat other’s original idea
• By preventing plagiarism , it saves the scientific manuscript from rejection and thus also saves a lot of time and money
• Helps to evaluate, condense and synthesize gist in the author’s own words to sharpen the research focus
• Helps to compare and contrast to  show the originality and uniqueness of the research than that of the existing other researches
• Rationalizes the need for conducting the particular research in a specified field
• Helps to collect data accurately for allowing any new methodology of research than the existing ones
• Enables the readers of the manuscript to answer the following questions of its readers for its better chances for publication
• What do the researchers know?
• What do they not know?
• Is the scientific manuscript reliable and trustworthy?
• What are the knowledge gaps of the researcher?

22. It helps the readers to identify the following for further reading of the scientific manuscript:

• What has been already established, discredited and accepted in the particular field of research
• Areas of controversy and conflicts among different schools of thought
• Unsolved problems and issues in the connected field of research
• The emerging trends and approaches
• How the research extends, builds upon and leaves behind from the previous research

A profound literature review with many relevant sources of reference will enhance the chances of the scientific manuscript publication in renowned and reputed scientific journals .

References:

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• Steps in Conducting a Literature Review

What is a literature review?

A literature review is an integrated analysis -- not just a summary-- of scholarly writings and other relevant evidence related directly to your research question.  That is, it represents a synthesis of the evidence that provides background information on your topic and shows a association between the evidence and your research question.

A literature review may be a stand alone work or the introduction to a larger research paper, depending on the assignment.  Rely heavily on the guidelines your instructor has given you.

Why is it important?

A literature review is important because it:

• Explains the background of research on a topic.
• Demonstrates why a topic is significant to a subject area.
• Discovers relationships between research studies/ideas.
• Identifies major themes, concepts, and researchers on a topic.
• Identifies critical gaps and points of disagreement.
• Discusses further research questions that logically come out of the previous studies.

APA7 Style resources

APA Style Blog - for those harder to find answers

1. Choose a topic. Define your research question.

Your literature review should be guided by your central research question.  The literature represents background and research developments related to a specific research question, interpreted and analyzed by you in a synthesized way.

• Make sure your research question is not too broad or too narrow.  Is it manageable?
• Begin writing down terms that are related to your question. These will be useful for searches later.
• If you have the opportunity, discuss your topic with your professor and your class mates.

2. Decide on the scope of your review

How many studies do you need to look at? How comprehensive should it be? How many years should it cover? 

• This may depend on your assignment.  How many sources does the assignment require?

3. Select the databases you will use to conduct your searches.

Make a list of the databases you will search. 

Where to find databases:

• use the tabs on this guide
• Find other databases in the Nursing Information Resources web page
• More on the Medical Library web page
• ... and more on the Yale University Library web page

4. Conduct your searches to find the evidence. Keep track of your searches.

• Use the key words in your question, as well as synonyms for those words, as terms in your search. Use the database tutorials for help.
• Save the searches in the databases. This saves time when you want to redo, or modify, the searches. It is also helpful to use as a guide is the searches are not finding any useful results.
• Review the abstracts of research studies carefully. This will save you time.
• Use the bibliographies and references of research studies you find to locate others.
• Check with your professor, or a subject expert in the field, if you are missing any key works in the field.
• Ask your librarian for help at any time.
• Use a citation manager, such as EndNote as the repository for your citations. See the EndNote tutorials for help.

Review the literature

Some questions to help you analyze the research:

• What was the research question of the study you are reviewing? What were the authors trying to discover?
• Was the research funded by a source that could influence the findings?
• What were the research methodologies? Analyze its literature review, the samples and variables used, the results, and the conclusions.
• Does the research seem to be complete? Could it have been conducted more soundly? What further questions does it raise?
• If there are conflicting studies, why do you think that is?
• How are the authors viewed in the field? Has this study been cited? If so, how has it been analyzed?

Tips: 

• Review the abstracts carefully.  
• Keep careful notes so that you may track your thought processes during the research process.
• Create a matrix of the studies for easy analysis, and synthesis, across all of the studies.
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What is a Literature Review?

A literature or narrative review is a comprehensive review and analysis of the published literature on a specific topic or research question. The literature that is reviewed contains: books, articles, academic articles, conference proceedings, association papers, and dissertations. It contains the most pertinent studies and points to important past and current research and practices. It provides background and context, and shows how your research will contribute to the field. 

A literature review should: 

• Provide a comprehensive and updated review of the literature;
• Explain why this review has taken place;
• Articulate a position or hypothesis;
• Acknowledge and account for conflicting and corroborating points of view

From  S age Research Methods

Purpose of a Literature Review

A literature review can be written as an introduction to a study to:

• Demonstrate how a study fills a gap in research
• Compare a study with other research that's been done

Or it can be a separate work (a research article on its own) which:

• Organizes or describes a topic
• Describes variables within a particular issue/problem

Limitations of a Literature Review

Some of the limitations of a literature review are:

• It's a snapshot in time. Unlike other reviews, this one has beginning, a middle and an end. There may be future developments that could make your work less relevant.
• It may be too focused. Some niche studies may miss the bigger picture.
• It can be difficult to be comprehensive. There is no way to make sure all the literature on a topic was considered.
• It is easy to be biased if you stick to top tier journals. There may be other places where people are publishing exemplary research. Look to open access publications and conferences to reflect a more inclusive collection. Also, make sure to include opposing views (and not just supporting evidence).

Source: Grant, Maria J., and Andrew Booth. “A Typology of Reviews: An Analysis of 14 Review Types and Associated Methodologies.” Health Information & Libraries Journal, vol. 26, no. 2, June 2009, pp. 91–108. Wiley Online Library, doi:10.1111/j.1471-1842.2009.00848.x.

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Susan Macicak : Linguistics

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For help in other subject areas, please see the guide to library specialists by subject .

Periodically, UT Libraries runs a workshop covering the basics and library support for literature reviews. While we try to offer these once per academic year, we find providing the recording to be helpful to community members who have missed the session. Following is the most recent recording of the workshop, Conducting a Literature Review. To view the recording, a UT login is required.

• October 26, 2022 recording
• Last Updated: Oct 26, 2022 2:49 PM
• URL: https://guides.lib.utexas.edu/literaturereviews

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Conducting a literature review: why do a literature review, why do a literature review.

• How To Find "The Literature"
• Found it -- Now What?

Besides the obvious reason for students -- because it is assigned! -- a literature review helps you explore the research that has come before you, to see how your research question has (or has not) already been addressed.

You identify:

• core research in the field
• experts in the subject area
• methodology you may want to use (or avoid)
• gaps in knowledge -- or where your research would fit in

It Also Helps You:

• Publish and share your findings
• Justify requests for grants and other funding
• Identify best practices to inform practice
• Set wider context for a program evaluation
• Compile information to support community organizing

Great brief overview, from NCSU

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• Literature Review: The What, Why and How-to Guide
• Introduction

Literature Review: The What, Why and How-to Guide — Introduction

• Getting Started
• How to Pick a Topic
• Strategies to Find Sources
• Evaluating Sources & Lit. Reviews
• Tips for Writing Literature Reviews
• Writing Literature Review: Useful Sites
• Citation Resources
• Other Academic Writings

What are Literature Reviews?

So, what is a literature review? "A literature review is an account of what has been published on a topic by accredited scholars and researchers. In writing the literature review, your purpose is to convey to your reader what knowledge and ideas have been established on a topic, and what their strengths and weaknesses are. As a piece of writing, the literature review must be defined by a guiding concept (e.g., your research objective, the problem or issue you are discussing, or your argumentative thesis). It is not just a descriptive list of the material available, or a set of summaries." Taylor, D.  The literature review: A few tips on conducting it . University of Toronto Health Sciences Writing Centre.

Goals of Literature Reviews

What are the goals of creating a Literature Review?  A literature could be written to accomplish different aims:

• To develop a theory or evaluate an existing theory
• To summarize the historical or existing state of a research topic
• Identify a problem in a field of research 

Baumeister, R. F., & Leary, M. R. (1997). Writing narrative literature reviews .  Review of General Psychology , 1 (3), 311-320.

What kinds of sources require a Literature Review?

• A research paper assigned in a course
• A thesis or dissertation
• A grant proposal
• An article intended for publication in a journal

All these instances require you to collect what has been written about your research topic so that you can demonstrate how your own research sheds new light on the topic.

• Types of Literature Reviews

What kinds of literature reviews are written?

Narrative review: The purpose of this type of review is to describe the current state of the research on a specific topic/research and to offer a critical analysis of the literature reviewed. Studies are grouped by research/theoretical categories, and themes and trends, strengths and weakness, and gaps are identified. The review ends with a conclusion section which summarizes the findings regarding the state of the research of the specific study, the gaps identify and if applicable, explains how the author's research will address gaps identify in the review and expand the knowledge on the topic reviewed.

• Example : Predictors and Outcomes of U.S. Quality Maternity Leave: A Review and Conceptual Framework:  10.1177/08948453211037398  

Systematic review : "The authors of a systematic review use a specific procedure to search the research literature, select the studies to include in their review, and critically evaluate the studies they find." (p. 139). Nelson, L. K. (2013). Research in Communication Sciences and Disorders . Plural Publishing.

• Example : The effect of leave policies on increasing fertility: a systematic review:  10.1057/s41599-022-01270-w

Meta-analysis : "Meta-analysis is a method of reviewing research findings in a quantitative fashion by transforming the data from individual studies into what is called an effect size and then pooling and analyzing this information. The basic goal in meta-analysis is to explain why different outcomes have occurred in different studies." (p. 197). Roberts, M. C., & Ilardi, S. S. (2003). Handbook of Research Methods in Clinical Psychology . Blackwell Publishing.

• Example : Employment Instability and Fertility in Europe: A Meta-Analysis:  10.1215/00703370-9164737

Meta-synthesis : "Qualitative meta-synthesis is a type of qualitative study that uses as data the findings from other qualitative studies linked by the same or related topic." (p.312). Zimmer, L. (2006). Qualitative meta-synthesis: A question of dialoguing with texts .  Journal of Advanced Nursing , 53 (3), 311-318.

• Example : Women’s perspectives on career successes and barriers: A qualitative meta-synthesis:  10.1177/05390184221113735

Literature Reviews in the Health Sciences

• UConn Health subject guide on systematic reviews Explanation of the different review types used in health sciences literature as well as tools to help you find the right review type
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Frequently asked questions

What is the purpose of a literature review.

There are several reasons to conduct a literature review at the beginning of a research project:

• To familiarize yourself with the current state of knowledge on your topic
• To ensure that you’re not just repeating what others have already done
• To identify gaps in knowledge and unresolved problems that your research can address
• To develop your theoretical framework and methodology
• To provide an overview of the key findings and debates on the topic

Writing the literature review shows your reader how your work relates to existing research and what new insights it will contribute.

Frequently asked questions: Academic writing

A rhetorical tautology is the repetition of an idea of concept using different words.

Rhetorical tautologies occur when additional words are used to convey a meaning that has already been expressed or implied. For example, the phrase “armed gunman” is a tautology because a “gunman” is by definition “armed.”

A logical tautology is a statement that is always true because it includes all logical possibilities.

Logical tautologies often take the form of “either/or” statements (e.g., “It will rain, or it will not rain”) or employ circular reasoning (e.g., “she is untrustworthy because she can’t be trusted”).

You may have seen both “appendices” or “appendixes” as pluralizations of “ appendix .” Either spelling can be used, but “appendices” is more common (including in APA Style ). Consistency is key here: make sure you use the same spelling throughout your paper.

The purpose of a lab report is to demonstrate your understanding of the scientific method with a hands-on lab experiment. Course instructors will often provide you with an experimental design and procedure. Your task is to write up how you actually performed the experiment and evaluate the outcome.

In contrast, a research paper requires you to independently develop an original argument. It involves more in-depth research and interpretation of sources and data.

A lab report is usually shorter than a research paper.

The sections of a lab report can vary between scientific fields and course requirements, but it usually contains the following:

• Title: expresses the topic of your study
• Abstract: summarizes your research aims, methods, results, and conclusions
• Introduction: establishes the context needed to understand the topic
• Method: describes the materials and procedures used in the experiment
• Results: reports all descriptive and inferential statistical analyses
• Discussion: interprets and evaluates results and identifies limitations
• Conclusion: sums up the main findings of your experiment
• References: list of all sources cited using a specific style (e.g. APA)
• Appendices: contains lengthy materials, procedures, tables or figures

A lab report conveys the aim, methods, results, and conclusions of a scientific experiment . Lab reports are commonly assigned in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) fields.

The abstract is the very last thing you write. You should only write it after your research is complete, so that you can accurately summarize the entirety of your thesis , dissertation or research paper .

If you’ve gone over the word limit set for your assignment, shorten your sentences and cut repetition and redundancy during the editing process. If you use a lot of long quotes , consider shortening them to just the essentials.

If you need to remove a lot of words, you may have to cut certain passages. Remember that everything in the text should be there to support your argument; look for any information that’s not essential to your point and remove it.

To make this process easier and faster, you can use a paraphrasing tool . With this tool, you can rewrite your text to make it simpler and shorter. If that’s not enough, you can copy-paste your paraphrased text into the summarizer . This tool will distill your text to its core message.

Revising, proofreading, and editing are different stages of the writing process .

• Revising is making structural and logical changes to your text—reformulating arguments and reordering information.
• Editing refers to making more local changes to things like sentence structure and phrasing to make sure your meaning is conveyed clearly and concisely.
• Proofreading involves looking at the text closely, line by line, to spot any typos and issues with consistency and correct them.

The literature review usually comes near the beginning of your thesis or dissertation . After the introduction , it grounds your research in a scholarly field and leads directly to your theoretical framework or methodology .

A literature review is a survey of scholarly sources (such as books, journal articles, and theses) related to a specific topic or research question .

It is often written as part of a thesis, dissertation , or research paper , in order to situate your work in relation to existing knowledge.

Avoid citing sources in your abstract . There are two reasons for this:

• The abstract should focus on your original research, not on the work of others.
• The abstract should be self-contained and fully understandable without reference to other sources.

There are some circumstances where you might need to mention other sources in an abstract: for example, if your research responds directly to another study or focuses on the work of a single theorist. In general, though, don’t include citations unless absolutely necessary.

An abstract is a concise summary of an academic text (such as a journal article or dissertation ). It serves two main purposes:

• To help potential readers determine the relevance of your paper for their own research.
• To communicate your key findings to those who don’t have time to read the whole paper.

Abstracts are often indexed along with keywords on academic databases, so they make your work more easily findable. Since the abstract is the first thing any reader sees, it’s important that it clearly and accurately summarizes the contents of your paper.

In a scientific paper, the methodology always comes after the introduction and before the results , discussion and conclusion . The same basic structure also applies to a thesis, dissertation , or research proposal .

Depending on the length and type of document, you might also include a literature review or theoretical framework before the methodology.

Whether you’re publishing a blog, submitting a research paper , or even just writing an important email, there are a few techniques you can use to make sure it’s error-free:

• Take a break : Set your work aside for at least a few hours so that you can look at it with fresh eyes.
• Proofread a printout : Staring at a screen for too long can cause fatigue – sit down with a pen and paper to check the final version.
• Use digital shortcuts : Take note of any recurring mistakes (for example, misspelling a particular word, switching between US and UK English , or inconsistently capitalizing a term), and use Find and Replace to fix it throughout the document.

If you want to be confident that an important text is error-free, it might be worth choosing a professional proofreading service instead.

Editing and proofreading are different steps in the process of revising a text.

Editing comes first, and can involve major changes to content, structure and language. The first stages of editing are often done by authors themselves, while a professional editor makes the final improvements to grammar and style (for example, by improving sentence structure and word choice ).

Proofreading is the final stage of checking a text before it is published or shared. It focuses on correcting minor errors and inconsistencies (for example, in punctuation and capitalization ). Proofreaders often also check for formatting issues, especially in print publishing.

The cost of proofreading depends on the type and length of text, the turnaround time, and the level of services required. Most proofreading companies charge per word or page, while freelancers sometimes charge an hourly rate.

For proofreading alone, which involves only basic corrections of typos and formatting mistakes, you might pay as little as $0.01 per word, but in many cases, your text will also require some level of editing , which costs slightly more.

It’s often possible to purchase combined proofreading and editing services and calculate the price in advance based on your requirements.

There are many different routes to becoming a professional proofreader or editor. The necessary qualifications depend on the field – to be an academic or scientific proofreader, for example, you will need at least a university degree in a relevant subject.

For most proofreading jobs, experience and demonstrated skills are more important than specific qualifications. Often your skills will be tested as part of the application process.

To learn practical proofreading skills, you can choose to take a course with a professional organization such as the Society for Editors and Proofreaders . Alternatively, you can apply to companies that offer specialized on-the-job training programmes, such as the Scribbr Academy .

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Literature reviews, what is a literature review, learning more about how to do a literature review.

• Planning the Review
• The Research Question
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• Organizing the Review
• Writing the Review

A literature review is a review and synthesis of existing research on a topic or research question. A literature review is meant to analyze the scholarly literature, make connections across writings and identify strengths, weaknesses, trends, and missing conversations. A literature review should address different aspects of a topic as it relates to your research question. A literature review goes beyond a description or summary of the literature you have read. 

• Sage Research Methods Core Collection This link opens in a new window SAGE Research Methods supports research at all levels by providing material to guide users through every step of the research process. SAGE Research Methods is the ultimate methods library with more than 1000 books, reference works, journal articles, and instructional videos by world-leading academics from across the social sciences, including the largest collection of qualitative methods books available online from any scholarly publisher. – Publisher

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• Literature Review
• What is NOT a Literature Review?
• Purposes of a Literature Review
• Literature Reviews vs. Systematic Reviews
• Systematic vs. Meta-Analysis

Literature Review  is a comprehensive survey of the works published in a particular field of study or line of research, usually over a specific period of time, in the form of an in-depth, critical bibliographic essay or annotated list in which attention is drawn to the most significant works.

Also, we can define a literature review as the collected body of scholarly works related to a topic:

• Summarizes and analyzes previous research relevant to a topic
• Includes scholarly books and articles published in academic journals
• Can be an specific scholarly paper or a section in a research paper

The objective of a Literature Review is to find previous published scholarly works relevant to an specific topic

• Help gather ideas or information
• Keep up to date in current trends and findings
• Help develop new questions
• Helps focus your own research questions or problems
• Suggests unexplored ideas or populations
• Tests assumptions; may help counter preconceived ideas and remove unconscious bias.
• Identifies critical gaps, points of disagreement, or potentially flawed methodology or theoretical approaches.
• Indicates potential directions for future research.

All content in this section is from Literature Review Research from Old Dominion University 

Keep in mind the following, a literature review is NOT:

Not an essay 

Not an annotated bibliography  in which you summarize each article that you have reviewed.  A literature review goes beyond basic summarizing to focus on the critical analysis of the reviewed works and their relationship to your research question.

Not a research paper   where you select resources to support one side of an issue versus another.  A lit review should explain and consider all sides of an argument in order to avoid bias, and areas of agreement and disagreement should be highlighted.

A literature review serves several purposes. For example, it

• provides thorough knowledge of previous studies; introduces seminal works.
• helps focus one’s own research topic.
• identifies a conceptual framework for one’s own research questions or problems; indicates potential directions for future research.
• suggests previously unused or underused methodologies, designs, quantitative and qualitative strategies.
• identifies gaps in previous studies; identifies flawed methodologies and/or theoretical approaches; avoids replication of mistakes.
• helps the researcher avoid repetition of earlier research.
• suggests unexplored populations.
• determines whether past studies agree or disagree; identifies controversy in the literature.
• tests assumptions; may help counter preconceived ideas and remove unconscious bias.

As Kennedy (2007) notes*, it is important to think of knowledge in a given field as consisting of three layers. First, there are the primary studies that researchers conduct and publish. Second are the reviews of those studies that summarize and offer new interpretations built from and often extending beyond the original studies. Third, there are the perceptions, conclusions, opinion, and interpretations that are shared informally that become part of the lore of field. In composing a literature review, it is important to note that it is often this third layer of knowledge that is cited as "true" even though it often has only a loose relationship to the primary studies and secondary literature reviews.

Given this, while literature reviews are designed to provide an overview and synthesis of pertinent sources you have explored, there are several approaches to how they can be done, depending upon the type of analysis underpinning your study. Listed below are definitions of types of literature reviews:

Argumentative Review      This form examines literature selectively in order to support or refute an argument, deeply imbedded assumption, or philosophical problem already established in the literature. The purpose is to develop a body of literature that establishes a contrarian viewpoint. Given the value-laden nature of some social science research [e.g., educational reform; immigration control], argumentative approaches to analyzing the literature can be a legitimate and important form of discourse. However, note that they can also introduce problems of bias when they are used to to make summary claims of the sort found in systematic reviews.

Integrative Review      Considered a form of research that reviews, critiques, and synthesizes representative literature on a topic in an integrated way such that new frameworks and perspectives on the topic are generated. The body of literature includes all studies that address related or identical hypotheses. A well-done integrative review meets the same standards as primary research in regard to clarity, rigor, and replication.

Historical Review      Few things rest in isolation from historical precedent. Historical reviews are focused on examining research throughout a period of time, often starting with the first time an issue, concept, theory, phenomena emerged in the literature, then tracing its evolution within the scholarship of a discipline. The purpose is to place research in a historical context to show familiarity with state-of-the-art developments and to identify the likely directions for future research.

Methodological Review      A review does not always focus on what someone said [content], but how they said it [method of analysis]. This approach provides a framework of understanding at different levels (i.e. those of theory, substantive fields, research approaches and data collection and analysis techniques), enables researchers to draw on a wide variety of knowledge ranging from the conceptual level to practical documents for use in fieldwork in the areas of ontological and epistemological consideration, quantitative and qualitative integration, sampling, interviewing, data collection and data analysis, and helps highlight many ethical issues which we should be aware of and consider as we go through our study.

Systematic Review      This form consists of an overview of existing evidence pertinent to a clearly formulated research question, which uses pre-specified and standardized methods to identify and critically appraise relevant research, and to collect, report, and analyse data from the studies that are included in the review. Typically it focuses on a very specific empirical question, often posed in a cause-and-effect form, such as "To what extent does A contribute to B?"

Theoretical Review      The purpose of this form is to concretely examine the corpus of theory that has accumulated in regard to an issue, concept, theory, phenomena. The theoretical literature review help establish what theories already exist, the relationships between them, to what degree the existing theories have been investigated, and to develop new hypotheses to be tested. Often this form is used to help establish a lack of appropriate theories or reveal that current theories are inadequate for explaining new or emerging research problems. The unit of analysis can focus on a theoretical concept or a whole theory or framework.

* Kennedy, Mary M. "Defining a Literature."  Educational Researcher  36 (April 2007): 139-147.

All content in this section is from The Literature Review created by Dr. Robert Larabee USC

Robinson, P. and Lowe, J. (2015),  Literature reviews vs systematic reviews.  Australian and New Zealand Journal of Public Health, 39: 103-103. doi: 10.1111/1753-6405.12393

What's in the name? The difference between a Systematic Review and a Literature Review, and why it matters . By Lynn Kysh from University of Southern California

Systematic review or meta-analysis?

A  systematic review  answers a defined research question by collecting and summarizing all empirical evidence that fits pre-specified eligibility criteria.

A  meta-analysis  is the use of statistical methods to summarize the results of these studies.

Systematic reviews, just like other research articles, can be of varying quality. They are a significant piece of work (the Centre for Reviews and Dissemination at York estimates that a team will take 9-24 months), and to be useful to other researchers and practitioners they should have:

• clearly stated objectives with pre-defined eligibility criteria for studies
• explicit, reproducible methodology
• a systematic search that attempts to identify all studies
• assessment of the validity of the findings of the included studies (e.g. risk of bias)
• systematic presentation, and synthesis, of the characteristics and findings of the included studies

Not all systematic reviews contain meta-analysis. 

Meta-analysis is the use of statistical methods to summarize the results of independent studies. By combining information from all relevant studies, meta-analysis can provide more precise estimates of the effects of health care than those derived from the individual studies included within a review.  More information on meta-analyses can be found in  Cochrane Handbook, Chapter 9 .

A meta-analysis goes beyond critique and integration and conducts secondary statistical analysis on the outcomes of similar studies.  It is a systematic review that uses quantitative methods to synthesize and summarize the results.

An advantage of a meta-analysis is the ability to be completely objective in evaluating research findings.  Not all topics, however, have sufficient research evidence to allow a meta-analysis to be conducted.  In that case, an integrative review is an appropriate strategy. 

Some of the content in this section is from Systematic reviews and meta-analyses: step by step guide created by Kate McAllister.

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What is the Purpose of a Literature Review?

4-minute read

• 23rd October 2023

If you’re writing a research paper or dissertation , then you’ll most likely need to include a comprehensive literature review . In this post, we’ll review the purpose of literature reviews, why they are so significant, and the specific elements to include in one. Literature reviews can:

1. Provide a foundation for current research.

2. Define key concepts and theories.

3. Demonstrate critical evaluation.

4. Show how research and methodologies have evolved.

5. Identify gaps in existing research.

6. Support your argument.

Keep reading to enter the exciting world of literature reviews!

A literature review is a critical summary and evaluation of the existing research (e.g., academic journal articles and books) on a specific topic. It is typically included as a separate section or chapter of a research paper or dissertation, serving as a contextual framework for a study. Literature reviews can vary in length depending on the subject and nature of the study, with most being about equal length to other sections or chapters included in the paper. Essentially, the literature review highlights previous studies in the context of your research and summarizes your insights in a structured, organized format. Next, let’s look at the overall purpose of a literature review.

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Literature reviews are considered an integral part of research across most academic subjects and fields. The primary purpose of a literature review in your study is to:

Provide a Foundation for Current Research

Since the literature review provides a comprehensive evaluation of the existing research, it serves as a solid foundation for your current study. It’s a way to contextualize your work and show how your research fits into the broader landscape of your specific area of study.  

Define Key Concepts and Theories

The literature review highlights the central theories and concepts that have arisen from previous research on your chosen topic. It gives your readers a more thorough understanding of the background of your study and why your research is particularly significant .

Demonstrate Critical Evaluation 

A comprehensive literature review shows your ability to critically analyze and evaluate a broad range of source material. And since you’re considering and acknowledging the contribution of key scholars alongside your own, it establishes your own credibility and knowledge.

Show How Research and Methodologies Have Evolved

Another purpose of literature reviews is to provide a historical perspective and demonstrate how research and methodologies have changed over time, especially as data collection methods and technology have advanced. And studying past methodologies allows you, as the researcher, to understand what did and did not work and apply that knowledge to your own research.  

Identify Gaps in Existing Research

Besides discussing current research and methodologies, the literature review should also address areas that are lacking in the existing literature. This helps further demonstrate the relevance of your own research by explaining why your study is necessary to fill the gaps.

Support Your Argument

A good literature review should provide evidence that supports your research questions and hypothesis. For example, your study may show that your research supports existing theories or builds on them in some way. Referencing previous related studies shows your work is grounded in established research and will ultimately be a contribution to the field.  

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Literature Review in Research Writing

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Table of Contents

Research on research? If you find this idea rather peculiar, know that nowadays, with the huge amount of information produced daily all around the world, it is becoming more and more difficult to keep up to date with all of it. In addition to the sheer amount of research, there is also its origin. We are witnessing the economic and intellectual emergence of countries like China, Brazil, Turkey, and United Arab Emirates, for example, that are producing scholarly literature in their own languages. So, apart from the effort of gathering information, there must also be translators prepared to unify all of it in a single language to be the object of the literature survey. At Elsevier, our team of translators is ready to support researchers by delivering high-quality scientific translations , in several languages, to serve their research – no matter the topic.

A literature review is a study – or, more accurately, a survey – involving scholarly material, with the aim to discuss published information about a specific topic or research question. Therefore, to write a literature review, it is compulsory that you are a real expert in the object of study. The results and findings will be published and made available to the public, namely scientists working in the same area of research.

How to Write a Literature Review

First of all, don’t forget that writing a literature review is a great responsibility. It’s a document that is expected to be highly reliable, especially concerning its sources and findings. You have to feel intellectually comfortable in the area of study and highly proficient in the target language; misconceptions and errors do not have a place in a document as important as a literature review. In fact, you might want to consider text editing services, like those offered at Elsevier, to make sure your literature is following the highest standards of text quality. You want to make sure your literature review is memorable by its novelty and quality rather than language errors.

Writing a literature review requires expertise but also organization. We cannot teach you about your topic of research, but we can provide a few steps to guide you through conducting a literature review:

• Choose your topic or research question: It should not be too comprehensive or too limited. You have to complete your task within a feasible time frame.
• Set the scope: Define boundaries concerning the number of sources, time frame to be covered, geographical area, etc.
• Decide which databases you will use for your searches: In order to search the best viable sources for your literature review, use highly regarded, comprehensive databases to get a big picture of the literature related to your topic.
• Search, search, and search: Now you’ll start to investigate the research on your topic. It’s critical that you keep track of all the sources. Start by looking at research abstracts in detail to see if their respective studies relate to or are useful for your own work. Next, search for bibliographies and references that can help you broaden your list of resources. Choose the most relevant literature and remember to keep notes of their bibliographic references to be used later on.
• Review all the literature, appraising carefully it’s content: After reading the study’s abstract, pay attention to the rest of the content of the articles you deem the “most relevant.” Identify methodologies, the most important questions they address, if they are well-designed and executed, and if they are cited enough, etc.

If it’s the first time you’ve published a literature review, note that it is important to follow a special structure. Just like in a thesis, for example, it is expected that you have an introduction – giving the general idea of the central topic and organizational pattern – a body – which contains the actual discussion of the sources – and finally the conclusion or recommendations – where you bring forward whatever you have drawn from the reviewed literature. The conclusion may even suggest there are no agreeable findings and that the discussion should be continued.

Why are literature reviews important?

Literature reviews constantly feed new research, that constantly feeds literature reviews…and we could go on and on. The fact is, one acts like a force over the other and this is what makes science, as a global discipline, constantly develop and evolve. As a scientist, writing a literature review can be very beneficial to your career, and set you apart from the expert elite in your field of interest. But it also can be an overwhelming task, so don’t hesitate in contacting Elsevier for text editing services, either for profound edition or just a last revision. We guarantee the very highest standards. You can also save time by letting us suggest and make the necessary amendments to your manuscript, so that it fits the structural pattern of a literature review. Who knows how many worldwide researchers you will impact with your next perfectly written literature review.

Know more: How to Find a Gap in Research .

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Why Is Literature Review Important? (3 Benefits Explained)

by  Antony W

January 21, 2023

Every research project needs a literature review. And while it’s one of the most challenging parts of the assignment, in part because of the intensity of the research involved, it’s by far the most important section of a research paper.

Many students fail to write comprehensive literature reviews because they see the assignment as a formality.

For the most part, they’ll vaguely create a list of existing studies and consider the assignment complete. But such an approach overlooks why a literature review is important.

We need to take a step back and look beyond the definition of a literature review.

In particular, the goal of this guide is to help you explore the significance of the review of the existing literature.

Once you understand the role that literature reviews play in research projects, you’ll give the assignment the full attention that it deserves.

Key Takeaways

Writing a literature review is important for the following reasons:

• It demonstrates that you understand the issue you’re investigating.
• A literature review allows you to develop a more theoretical framework for your research. 
• It justifies your research and shows the gaps present in the current literature.

Get Literature Review Writing Help

Do you find the workload involved in writing a literature review for your thesis, research paper, or standalone project overwhelming? We understand how involving the writing process can be, and we are here to help you with writing if you currently feel stuck.

You can hire a  professional literature review writer   from Help for Assessment to get the writing done for you. Whether you have a flexible deadline or the submission date for the literature is almost due, you can count on our team to help you get the paper done fast. 

A literature review is a study of the already existing research in a given area of study.

While it’s common in physical and social sciences, instructors may also request student to complete the assignment within the humanities space.

The review can be a standalone project or a part of an academic assignment.

If your professor or instructor asks you to write the review as a standalone project, your focus will be on exploring how a specific field of inquiry has developed over the course of time.

In the case where you have to include the review as part of your academic paper, the goal will be to set the background for the topic (or issue) you’re currently investigating.

How is Literature Review Different from an Essay?

In an education setting whether students are used to writing tons of essays every month, it’s likely for many to wonder whether an essay could be the same as a literature review.

While a literature review and an essay both require research before writing, there are a number of differences between them that you need to know.

Types of Literature Review

We’ll look at the significance of a literature review in a moment.

For now let’s look at the types of literature reviews that your instructor may ask you to write.

As of this writing, there are 6 types of reviews that you need to know about. These are:

1. Argumentative Review

Examines a literature review with the intention to support or refuse an argument, with the aim being to develop a body of literature that can establish a contrarian point of view.

2. Integrative Literature Review

This type of review critiques and synthesizes related literature to generate a new framework and perspective on a topic.

Researchers have to address identical and/or related hypotheses or research problems to comply with research standards with regards to replication, vigor, and clarity.

3. Historical Literature

The focus of the review is to examine research within a given period, and usually starts from the time a research problem or issue emerged.

Then, you have to trace its evolution throughout the suggested timeframe within the scholarship of that particular discipline.

4. Methodological Literature Review

The focus shifts from what someone said to how they ended up saying what they said.

Since the focus here is on the method of analysis, methodological reviews gives a better framework that help one to understand exactly how a researcher draws their conclusion from a wide range of knowledge.

5. Systematic Literature

A systematic review focuses on the existing evidence related to a specific research question.

You will need to use a pre-specified and standardized approach to identify, evaluate, and appraise research, not to mention collect, analyze, and report data collected from the review.

Understand that the goal of a systematic review is to evaluate, summarize, and document research that focuses on a specific (or clearly defined) research problem.

6. Theoretical Literature Review

Theoretical review focuses on examining theories that resulted from an issue, a concept, or a situation.

It’s through this type of review that a researcher can easily establish the kind of theories that already formulated, the degree to what researchers have investigated them, and the relationship between them.

It’s through theoretical review that one can develop new hypotheses for testing and can therefore help to determine what theories aren’t sufficient to explain emerging research problems.

Why Is Literature Review Important?

Now that you know the difference between an essay and a review as well as the different types of literature review, it’s important to look at why it’s important to examine existing literature in your research.

There are a number of reasons why instructors ask you to write a review , and they’re as follow:

1. Demonstrate a Clear Understanding of the Subject

Writing a literature review demonstrates that you have a clear understanding of the subject you’re investigating.

It also means that you can easily identify, evaluate, and summarize existing research that’s relevant to your work. 

2. Justify Your Research

There’s more to writing a research paper than just identifying topic and generating your research question from it.

You also have to go as far as to justify your research, and the only way to do that is by including a literature review in your work.

It’s important to understand that looking at past research is the only way to identify gaps that exist in the current literature.

That can go a long way to help fill in the gap by addressing them in your own research work.

3. Helps to Set a Resourceful Theoretical Framework

Because a research paper assignment builds up on the ideas of already existing research, doing a literature review can help you to set a resourceful theoretical framework on which to base your study.

The theoretical framework will include concepts and theories that you will base your research on. And keep in mind that it’s this framework that professors will use to judge the overall quality of your work. 

Frequently Asked Questions

1. what are the benefits of literature review in research.

A literature review in research allows you to discover exiting knowledge in your field and the boundaries and limitations that exists within that field.

Moreover, doing a review of existing literature helps you to understand the theories that drive an area of investigation, making it easy for you to place your research question  into proper context. 

2. What is the Effect of a Good Literature Review?

In addition to providing context, reducing research redundancy, and informing methodology, a well-written literature review can maximize relevance, enhance originality, and ensure professional standards in writing.

3. What is a Strength of a Literature Review?

The strength of a literature review is the ability to improve your information seeking skills and enhancing your knowledge about the topic under investigation.

As you can see, a review is quite a significant part of a research project, so you should treat it with the seriousness that it deserves.

At the end of the day, you want to create a good connection between you and your readers, and the best way to do that is to pack just as much value as you can in your literature review project.

About the author 

Antony W is a professional writer and coach at Help for Assessment. He spends countless hours every day researching and writing great content filled with expert advice on how to write engaging essays, research papers, and assignments.

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The scholarly conversation.

A literature review provides an overview of previous research on a topic that critically evaluates, classifies, and compares what has already been published on a particular topic. It allows the author to synthesize and place into context the research and scholarly literature relevant to the topic. It helps map the different approaches to a given question and reveals patterns. It forms the foundation for the author’s subsequent research and justifies the significance of the new investigation.

A literature review can be a short introductory section of a research article or a report or policy paper that focuses on recent research. Or, in the case of dissertations, theses, and review articles, it can be an extensive review of all relevant research.

• The format is usually a bibliographic essay; sources are briefly cited within the body of the essay, with full bibliographic citations at the end.
• The introduction should define the topic and set the context for the literature review. It will include the author's perspective or point of view on the topic, how they have defined the scope of the topic (including what's not included), and how the review will be organized. It can point out overall trends, conflicts in methodology or conclusions, and gaps in the research.
• In the body of the review, the author should organize the research into major topics and subtopics. These groupings may be by subject, (e.g., globalization of clothing manufacturing), type of research (e.g., case studies), methodology (e.g., qualitative), genre, chronology, or other common characteristics. Within these groups, the author can then discuss the merits of each article and analyze and compare the importance of each article to similar ones.
• The conclusion will summarize the main findings, make clear how this review of the literature supports (or not) the research to follow, and may point the direction for further research.
• The list of references will include full citations for all of the items mentioned in the literature review.

Key Questions for a Literature Review

A literature review should try to answer questions such as

• Who are the key researchers on this topic?
• What has been the focus of the research efforts so far and what is the current status?
• How have certain studies built on prior studies? Where are the connections? Are there new interpretations of the research?
• Have there been any controversies or debate about the research? Is there consensus? Are there any contradictions?
• Which areas have been identified as needing further research? Have any pathways been suggested?
• How will your topic uniquely contribute to this body of knowledge?
• Which methodologies have researchers used and which appear to be the most productive?
• What sources of information or data were identified that might be useful to you?
• How does your particular topic fit into the larger context of what has already been done?
• How has the research that has already been done help frame your current investigation ?

Examples of Literature Reviews

Example of a literature review at the beginning of an article: Forbes, C. C., Blanchard, C. M., Mummery, W. K., & Courneya, K. S. (2015, March). Prevalence and correlates of strength exercise among breast, prostate, and colorectal cancer survivors . Oncology Nursing Forum, 42(2), 118+. Retrieved from http://go.galegroup.com.sonoma.idm.oclc.org/ps/i.do?p=HRCA&sw=w&u=sonomacsu&v=2.1&it=r&id=GALE%7CA422059606&asid=27e45873fddc413ac1bebbc129f7649c Example of a comprehensive review of the literature: Wilson, J. L. (2016). An exploration of bullying behaviours in nursing: a review of the literature.   British Journal Of Nursing ,  25 (6), 303-306. For additional examples, see:

Galvan, J., Galvan, M., & ProQuest. (2017). Writing literature reviews: A guide for students of the social and behavioral sciences (Seventh ed.). [Electronic book]

Pan, M., & Lopez, M. (2008). Preparing literature reviews: Qualitative and quantitative approaches (3rd ed.). Glendale, CA: Pyrczak Pub. [ Q180.55.E9 P36 2008]

Useful Links

• Write a Literature Review (UCSC)
• Literature Reviews (Purdue)
• Literature Reviews: overview (UNC)
• Review of Literature (UW-Madison)

Evidence Matrix for Literature Reviews

The  Evidence Matrix  can help you  organize your research  before writing your lit review.  Use it to  identify patterns  and commonalities in the articles you have found--similar methodologies ?  common  theoretical frameworks ? It helps you make sure that all your major concepts covered. It also helps you see how your research fits into the context  of the overall topic.

• Evidence Matrix Special thanks to Dr. Cindy Stearns, SSU Sociology Dept, for permission to use this Matrix as an example.
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Literature review

A general guide on how to conduct and write a literature review.

Please check course or programme information and materials provided by teaching staff, including your project supervisor, for subject-specific guidance.

A literature review is a piece of academic writing demonstrating knowledge and understanding of the academic literature on a specific topic placed in context.  A literature review also includes a critical evaluation of the material; this is why it is called a literature review rather than a literature report. It is a process of reviewing the literature, as well as a form of writing.

To illustrate the difference between reporting and reviewing, think about television or film review articles.  These articles include content such as a brief synopsis or the key points of the film or programme plus the critic’s own evaluation.  Similarly the two main objectives of a literature review are firstly the content covering existing research, theories and evidence, and secondly your own critical evaluation and discussion of this content. 

Usually a literature review forms a section or part of a dissertation, research project or long essay.  However, it can also be set and assessed as a standalone piece of work.

What is the purpose of a literature review?

…your task is to build an argument, not a library. Rudestam, K.E. and Newton, R.R. (1992) Surviving your dissertation: A comprehensive guide to content and process. California: Sage, p49.

In a larger piece of written work, such as a dissertation or project, a literature review is usually one of the first tasks carried out after deciding on a topic.  Reading combined with critical analysis can help to refine a topic and frame research questions.  Conducting a literature review establishes your familiarity with and understanding of current research in a particular field before carrying out a new investigation. After doing a literature review, you should know what research has already been done and be able to identify what is unknown within your topic.

When doing and writing a literature review, it is good practice to:

• summarise and analyse previous research and theories;
• identify areas of controversy and contested claims;
• highlight any gaps that may exist in research to date.

Conducting a literature review

Focusing on different aspects of your literature review can be useful to help plan, develop, refine and write it.  You can use and adapt the prompt questions in our worksheet below at different points in the process of researching and writing your review.  These are suggestions to get you thinking and writing.

Developing and refining your literature review (pdf)

Developing and refining your literature review (Word)

Developing and refining your literature review (Word rtf)

Writing a literature review has a lot in common with other assignment tasks.  There is advice on our other pages about thinking critically, reading strategies and academic writing.  Our literature review top tips suggest some specific things you can do to help you submit a successful review.

Literature review top tips (pdf)

Literature review top tips (Word rtf)

Our reading page includes strategies and advice on using books and articles and a notes record sheet grid you can use.

Reading at university

The Academic writing page suggests ways to organise and structure information from a range of sources and how you can develop your argument as you read and write.

Academic writing

The Critical thinking page has advice on how to be a more critical researcher and a form you can use to help you think and break down the stages of developing your argument.

Critical thinking

As with other forms of academic writing, your literature review needs to demonstrate good academic practice by following the Code of Student Conduct and acknowledging the work of others through citing and referencing your sources.  

Good academic practice

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Peer Review in Scientific Publications: Benefits, Critiques, & A Survival Guide

Jacalyn kelly.

1 Clinical Biochemistry, Department of Pediatric Laboratory Medicine, The Hospital for Sick Children, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada

Tara Sadeghieh

Khosrow adeli.

2 Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathobiology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada

3 Chair, Communications and Publications Division (CPD), International Federation for Sick Clinical Chemistry (IFCC), Milan, Italy

The authors declare no conflicts of interest regarding publication of this article.

Peer review has been defined as a process of subjecting an author’s scholarly work, research or ideas to the scrutiny of others who are experts in the same field. It functions to encourage authors to meet the accepted high standards of their discipline and to control the dissemination of research data to ensure that unwarranted claims, unacceptable interpretations or personal views are not published without prior expert review. Despite its wide-spread use by most journals, the peer review process has also been widely criticised due to the slowness of the process to publish new findings and due to perceived bias by the editors and/or reviewers. Within the scientific community, peer review has become an essential component of the academic writing process. It helps ensure that papers published in scientific journals answer meaningful research questions and draw accurate conclusions based on professionally executed experimentation. Submission of low quality manuscripts has become increasingly prevalent, and peer review acts as a filter to prevent this work from reaching the scientific community. The major advantage of a peer review process is that peer-reviewed articles provide a trusted form of scientific communication. Since scientific knowledge is cumulative and builds on itself, this trust is particularly important. Despite the positive impacts of peer review, critics argue that the peer review process stifles innovation in experimentation, and acts as a poor screen against plagiarism. Despite its downfalls, there has not yet been a foolproof system developed to take the place of peer review, however, researchers have been looking into electronic means of improving the peer review process. Unfortunately, the recent explosion in online only/electronic journals has led to mass publication of a large number of scientific articles with little or no peer review. This poses significant risk to advances in scientific knowledge and its future potential. The current article summarizes the peer review process, highlights the pros and cons associated with different types of peer review, and describes new methods for improving peer review.

WHAT IS PEER REVIEW AND WHAT IS ITS PURPOSE?

Peer Review is defined as “a process of subjecting an author’s scholarly work, research or ideas to the scrutiny of others who are experts in the same field” ( 1 ). Peer review is intended to serve two primary purposes. Firstly, it acts as a filter to ensure that only high quality research is published, especially in reputable journals, by determining the validity, significance and originality of the study. Secondly, peer review is intended to improve the quality of manuscripts that are deemed suitable for publication. Peer reviewers provide suggestions to authors on how to improve the quality of their manuscripts, and also identify any errors that need correcting before publication.

HISTORY OF PEER REVIEW

The concept of peer review was developed long before the scholarly journal. In fact, the peer review process is thought to have been used as a method of evaluating written work since ancient Greece ( 2 ). The peer review process was first described by a physician named Ishaq bin Ali al-Rahwi of Syria, who lived from 854-931 CE, in his book Ethics of the Physician ( 2 ). There, he stated that physicians must take notes describing the state of their patients’ medical conditions upon each visit. Following treatment, the notes were scrutinized by a local medical council to determine whether the physician had met the required standards of medical care. If the medical council deemed that the appropriate standards were not met, the physician in question could receive a lawsuit from the maltreated patient ( 2 ).

The invention of the printing press in 1453 allowed written documents to be distributed to the general public ( 3 ). At this time, it became more important to regulate the quality of the written material that became publicly available, and editing by peers increased in prevalence. In 1620, Francis Bacon wrote the work Novum Organum, where he described what eventually became known as the first universal method for generating and assessing new science ( 3 ). His work was instrumental in shaping the Scientific Method ( 3 ). In 1665, the French Journal des sçavans and the English Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society were the first scientific journals to systematically publish research results ( 4 ). Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society is thought to be the first journal to formalize the peer review process in 1665 ( 5 ), however, it is important to note that peer review was initially introduced to help editors decide which manuscripts to publish in their journals, and at that time it did not serve to ensure the validity of the research ( 6 ). It did not take long for the peer review process to evolve, and shortly thereafter papers were distributed to reviewers with the intent of authenticating the integrity of the research study before publication. The Royal Society of Edinburgh adhered to the following peer review process, published in their Medical Essays and Observations in 1731: “Memoirs sent by correspondence are distributed according to the subject matter to those members who are most versed in these matters. The report of their identity is not known to the author.” ( 7 ). The Royal Society of London adopted this review procedure in 1752 and developed the “Committee on Papers” to review manuscripts before they were published in Philosophical Transactions ( 6 ).

Peer review in the systematized and institutionalized form has developed immensely since the Second World War, at least partly due to the large increase in scientific research during this period ( 7 ). It is now used not only to ensure that a scientific manuscript is experimentally and ethically sound, but also to determine which papers sufficiently meet the journal’s standards of quality and originality before publication. Peer review is now standard practice by most credible scientific journals, and is an essential part of determining the credibility and quality of work submitted.

IMPACT OF THE PEER REVIEW PROCESS

Peer review has become the foundation of the scholarly publication system because it effectively subjects an author’s work to the scrutiny of other experts in the field. Thus, it encourages authors to strive to produce high quality research that will advance the field. Peer review also supports and maintains integrity and authenticity in the advancement of science. A scientific hypothesis or statement is generally not accepted by the academic community unless it has been published in a peer-reviewed journal ( 8 ). The Institute for Scientific Information ( ISI ) only considers journals that are peer-reviewed as candidates to receive Impact Factors. Peer review is a well-established process which has been a formal part of scientific communication for over 300 years.

OVERVIEW OF THE PEER REVIEW PROCESS

The peer review process begins when a scientist completes a research study and writes a manuscript that describes the purpose, experimental design, results, and conclusions of the study. The scientist then submits this paper to a suitable journal that specializes in a relevant research field, a step referred to as pre-submission. The editors of the journal will review the paper to ensure that the subject matter is in line with that of the journal, and that it fits with the editorial platform. Very few papers pass this initial evaluation. If the journal editors feel the paper sufficiently meets these requirements and is written by a credible source, they will send the paper to accomplished researchers in the field for a formal peer review. Peer reviewers are also known as referees (this process is summarized in Figure 1 ). The role of the editor is to select the most appropriate manuscripts for the journal, and to implement and monitor the peer review process. Editors must ensure that peer reviews are conducted fairly, and in an effective and timely manner. They must also ensure that there are no conflicts of interest involved in the peer review process.

Overview of the review process

When a reviewer is provided with a paper, he or she reads it carefully and scrutinizes it to evaluate the validity of the science, the quality of the experimental design, and the appropriateness of the methods used. The reviewer also assesses the significance of the research, and judges whether the work will contribute to advancement in the field by evaluating the importance of the findings, and determining the originality of the research. Additionally, reviewers identify any scientific errors and references that are missing or incorrect. Peer reviewers give recommendations to the editor regarding whether the paper should be accepted, rejected, or improved before publication in the journal. The editor will mediate author-referee discussion in order to clarify the priority of certain referee requests, suggest areas that can be strengthened, and overrule reviewer recommendations that are beyond the study’s scope ( 9 ). If the paper is accepted, as per suggestion by the peer reviewer, the paper goes into the production stage, where it is tweaked and formatted by the editors, and finally published in the scientific journal. An overview of the review process is presented in Figure 1 .

WHO CONDUCTS REVIEWS?

Peer reviews are conducted by scientific experts with specialized knowledge on the content of the manuscript, as well as by scientists with a more general knowledge base. Peer reviewers can be anyone who has competence and expertise in the subject areas that the journal covers. Reviewers can range from young and up-and-coming researchers to old masters in the field. Often, the young reviewers are the most responsive and deliver the best quality reviews, though this is not always the case. On average, a reviewer will conduct approximately eight reviews per year, according to a study on peer review by the Publishing Research Consortium (PRC) ( 7 ). Journals will often have a pool of reviewers with diverse backgrounds to allow for many different perspectives. They will also keep a rather large reviewer bank, so that reviewers do not get burnt out, overwhelmed or time constrained from reviewing multiple articles simultaneously.

WHY DO REVIEWERS REVIEW?

Referees are typically not paid to conduct peer reviews and the process takes considerable effort, so the question is raised as to what incentive referees have to review at all. Some feel an academic duty to perform reviews, and are of the mentality that if their peers are expected to review their papers, then they should review the work of their peers as well. Reviewers may also have personal contacts with editors, and may want to assist as much as possible. Others review to keep up-to-date with the latest developments in their field, and reading new scientific papers is an effective way to do so. Some scientists use peer review as an opportunity to advance their own research as it stimulates new ideas and allows them to read about new experimental techniques. Other reviewers are keen on building associations with prestigious journals and editors and becoming part of their community, as sometimes reviewers who show dedication to the journal are later hired as editors. Some scientists see peer review as a chance to become aware of the latest research before their peers, and thus be first to develop new insights from the material. Finally, in terms of career development, peer reviewing can be desirable as it is often noted on one’s resume or CV. Many institutions consider a researcher’s involvement in peer review when assessing their performance for promotions ( 11 ). Peer reviewing can also be an effective way for a scientist to show their superiors that they are committed to their scientific field ( 5 ).

ARE REVIEWERS KEEN TO REVIEW?

A 2009 international survey of 4000 peer reviewers conducted by the charity Sense About Science at the British Science Festival at the University of Surrey, found that 90% of reviewers were keen to peer review ( 12 ). One third of respondents to the survey said they were happy to review up to five papers per year, and an additional one third of respondents were happy to review up to ten.

HOW LONG DOES IT TAKE TO REVIEW ONE PAPER?

On average, it takes approximately six hours to review one paper ( 12 ), however, this number may vary greatly depending on the content of the paper and the nature of the peer reviewer. One in every 100 participants in the “Sense About Science” survey claims to have taken more than 100 hours to review their last paper ( 12 ).

HOW TO DETERMINE IF A JOURNAL IS PEER REVIEWED

Ulrichsweb is a directory that provides information on over 300,000 periodicals, including information regarding which journals are peer reviewed ( 13 ). After logging into the system using an institutional login (eg. from the University of Toronto), search terms, journal titles or ISSN numbers can be entered into the search bar. The database provides the title, publisher, and country of origin of the journal, and indicates whether the journal is still actively publishing. The black book symbol (labelled ‘refereed’) reveals that the journal is peer reviewed.

THE EVALUATION CRITERIA FOR PEER REVIEW OF SCIENTIFIC PAPERS

As previously mentioned, when a reviewer receives a scientific manuscript, he/she will first determine if the subject matter is well suited for the content of the journal. The reviewer will then consider whether the research question is important and original, a process which may be aided by a literature scan of review articles.

Scientific papers submitted for peer review usually follow a specific structure that begins with the title, followed by the abstract, introduction, methodology, results, discussion, conclusions, and references. The title must be descriptive and include the concept and organism investigated, and potentially the variable manipulated and the systems used in the study. The peer reviewer evaluates if the title is descriptive enough, and ensures that it is clear and concise. A study by the National Association of Realtors (NAR) published by the Oxford University Press in 2006 indicated that the title of a manuscript plays a significant role in determining reader interest, as 72% of respondents said they could usually judge whether an article will be of interest to them based on the title and the author, while 13% of respondents claimed to always be able to do so ( 14 ).

The abstract is a summary of the paper, which briefly mentions the background or purpose, methods, key results, and major conclusions of the study. The peer reviewer assesses whether the abstract is sufficiently informative and if the content of the abstract is consistent with the rest of the paper. The NAR study indicated that 40% of respondents could determine whether an article would be of interest to them based on the abstract alone 60-80% of the time, while 32% could judge an article based on the abstract 80-100% of the time ( 14 ). This demonstrates that the abstract alone is often used to assess the value of an article.

The introduction of a scientific paper presents the research question in the context of what is already known about the topic, in order to identify why the question being studied is of interest to the scientific community, and what gap in knowledge the study aims to fill ( 15 ). The introduction identifies the study’s purpose and scope, briefly describes the general methods of investigation, and outlines the hypothesis and predictions ( 15 ). The peer reviewer determines whether the introduction provides sufficient background information on the research topic, and ensures that the research question and hypothesis are clearly identifiable.

The methods section describes the experimental procedures, and explains why each experiment was conducted. The methods section also includes the equipment and reagents used in the investigation. The methods section should be detailed enough that it can be used it to repeat the experiment ( 15 ). Methods are written in the past tense and in the active voice. The peer reviewer assesses whether the appropriate methods were used to answer the research question, and if they were written with sufficient detail. If information is missing from the methods section, it is the peer reviewer’s job to identify what details need to be added.

The results section is where the outcomes of the experiment and trends in the data are explained without judgement, bias or interpretation ( 15 ). This section can include statistical tests performed on the data, as well as figures and tables in addition to the text. The peer reviewer ensures that the results are described with sufficient detail, and determines their credibility. Reviewers also confirm that the text is consistent with the information presented in tables and figures, and that all figures and tables included are important and relevant ( 15 ). The peer reviewer will also make sure that table and figure captions are appropriate both contextually and in length, and that tables and figures present the data accurately.

The discussion section is where the data is analyzed. Here, the results are interpreted and related to past studies ( 15 ). The discussion describes the meaning and significance of the results in terms of the research question and hypothesis, and states whether the hypothesis was supported or rejected. This section may also provide possible explanations for unusual results and suggestions for future research ( 15 ). The discussion should end with a conclusions section that summarizes the major findings of the investigation. The peer reviewer determines whether the discussion is clear and focused, and whether the conclusions are an appropriate interpretation of the results. Reviewers also ensure that the discussion addresses the limitations of the study, any anomalies in the results, the relationship of the study to previous research, and the theoretical implications and practical applications of the study.

The references are found at the end of the paper, and list all of the information sources cited in the text to describe the background, methods, and/or interpret results. Depending on the citation method used, the references are listed in alphabetical order according to author last name, or numbered according to the order in which they appear in the paper. The peer reviewer ensures that references are used appropriately, cited accurately, formatted correctly, and that none are missing.

Finally, the peer reviewer determines whether the paper is clearly written and if the content seems logical. After thoroughly reading through the entire manuscript, they determine whether it meets the journal’s standards for publication,

and whether it falls within the top 25% of papers in its field ( 16 ) to determine priority for publication. An overview of what a peer reviewer looks for when evaluating a manuscript, in order of importance, is presented in Figure 2 .

How a peer review evaluates a manuscript

To increase the chance of success in the peer review process, the author must ensure that the paper fully complies with the journal guidelines before submission. The author must also be open to criticism and suggested revisions, and learn from mistakes made in previous submissions.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF PEER REVIEW

The peer review process is generally conducted in one of three ways: open review, single-blind review, or double-blind review. In an open review, both the author of the paper and the peer reviewer know one another’s identity. Alternatively, in single-blind review, the reviewer’s identity is kept private, but the author’s identity is revealed to the reviewer. In double-blind review, the identities of both the reviewer and author are kept anonymous. Open peer review is advantageous in that it prevents the reviewer from leaving malicious comments, being careless, or procrastinating completion of the review ( 2 ). It encourages reviewers to be open and honest without being disrespectful. Open reviewing also discourages plagiarism amongst authors ( 2 ). On the other hand, open peer review can also prevent reviewers from being honest for fear of developing bad rapport with the author. The reviewer may withhold or tone down their criticisms in order to be polite ( 2 ). This is especially true when younger reviewers are given a more esteemed author’s work, in which case the reviewer may be hesitant to provide criticism for fear that it will damper their relationship with a superior ( 2 ). According to the Sense About Science survey, editors find that completely open reviewing decreases the number of people willing to participate, and leads to reviews of little value ( 12 ). In the aforementioned study by the PRC, only 23% of authors surveyed had experience with open peer review ( 7 ).

Single-blind peer review is by far the most common. In the PRC study, 85% of authors surveyed had experience with single-blind peer review ( 7 ). This method is advantageous as the reviewer is more likely to provide honest feedback when their identity is concealed ( 2 ). This allows the reviewer to make independent decisions without the influence of the author ( 2 ). The main disadvantage of reviewer anonymity, however, is that reviewers who receive manuscripts on subjects similar to their own research may be tempted to delay completing the review in order to publish their own data first ( 2 ).

Double-blind peer review is advantageous as it prevents the reviewer from being biased against the author based on their country of origin or previous work ( 2 ). This allows the paper to be judged based on the quality of the content, rather than the reputation of the author. The Sense About Science survey indicates that 76% of researchers think double-blind peer review is a good idea ( 12 ), and the PRC survey indicates that 45% of authors have had experience with double-blind peer review ( 7 ). The disadvantage of double-blind peer review is that, especially in niche areas of research, it can sometimes be easy for the reviewer to determine the identity of the author based on writing style, subject matter or self-citation, and thus, impart bias ( 2 ).

Masking the author’s identity from peer reviewers, as is the case in double-blind review, is generally thought to minimize bias and maintain review quality. A study by Justice et al. in 1998 investigated whether masking author identity affected the quality of the review ( 17 ). One hundred and eighteen manuscripts were randomized; 26 were peer reviewed as normal, and 92 were moved into the ‘intervention’ arm, where editor quality assessments were completed for 77 manuscripts and author quality assessments were completed for 40 manuscripts ( 17 ). There was no perceived difference in quality between the masked and unmasked reviews. Additionally, the masking itself was often unsuccessful, especially with well-known authors ( 17 ). However, a previous study conducted by McNutt et al. had different results ( 18 ). In this case, blinding was successful 73% of the time, and they found that when author identity was masked, the quality of review was slightly higher ( 18 ). Although Justice et al. argued that this difference was too small to be consequential, their study targeted only biomedical journals, and the results cannot be generalized to journals of a different subject matter ( 17 ). Additionally, there were problems masking the identities of well-known authors, introducing a flaw in the methods. Regardless, Justice et al. concluded that masking author identity from reviewers may not improve review quality ( 17 ).

In addition to open, single-blind and double-blind peer review, there are two experimental forms of peer review. In some cases, following publication, papers may be subjected to post-publication peer review. As many papers are now published online, the scientific community has the opportunity to comment on these papers, engage in online discussions and post a formal review. For example, online publishers PLOS and BioMed Central have enabled scientists to post comments on published papers if they are registered users of the site ( 10 ). Philica is another journal launched with this experimental form of peer review. Only 8% of authors surveyed in the PRC study had experience with post-publication review ( 7 ). Another experimental form of peer review called Dynamic Peer Review has also emerged. Dynamic peer review is conducted on websites such as Naboj, which allow scientists to conduct peer reviews on articles in the preprint media ( 19 ). The peer review is conducted on repositories and is a continuous process, which allows the public to see both the article and the reviews as the article is being developed ( 19 ). Dynamic peer review helps prevent plagiarism as the scientific community will already be familiar with the work before the peer reviewed version appears in print ( 19 ). Dynamic review also reduces the time lag between manuscript submission and publishing. An example of a preprint server is the ‘arXiv’ developed by Paul Ginsparg in 1991, which is used primarily by physicists ( 19 ). These alternative forms of peer review are still un-established and experimental. Traditional peer review is time-tested and still highly utilized. All methods of peer review have their advantages and deficiencies, and all are prone to error.

PEER REVIEW OF OPEN ACCESS JOURNALS

Open access (OA) journals are becoming increasingly popular as they allow the potential for widespread distribution of publications in a timely manner ( 20 ). Nevertheless, there can be issues regarding the peer review process of open access journals. In a study published in Science in 2013, John Bohannon submitted 304 slightly different versions of a fictional scientific paper (written by a fake author, working out of a non-existent institution) to a selected group of OA journals. This study was performed in order to determine whether papers submitted to OA journals are properly reviewed before publication in comparison to subscription-based journals. The journals in this study were selected from the Directory of Open Access Journals (DOAJ) and Biall’s List, a list of journals which are potentially predatory, and all required a fee for publishing ( 21 ). Of the 304 journals, 157 accepted a fake paper, suggesting that acceptance was based on financial interest rather than the quality of article itself, while 98 journals promptly rejected the fakes ( 21 ). Although this study highlights useful information on the problems associated with lower quality publishers that do not have an effective peer review system in place, the article also generalizes the study results to all OA journals, which can be detrimental to the general perception of OA journals. There were two limitations of the study that made it impossible to accurately determine the relationship between peer review and OA journals: 1) there was no control group (subscription-based journals), and 2) the fake papers were sent to a non-randomized selection of journals, resulting in bias.

JOURNAL ACCEPTANCE RATES

Based on a recent survey, the average acceptance rate for papers submitted to scientific journals is about 50% ( 7 ). Twenty percent of the submitted manuscripts that are not accepted are rejected prior to review, and 30% are rejected following review ( 7 ). Of the 50% accepted, 41% are accepted with the condition of revision, while only 9% are accepted without the request for revision ( 7 ).

SATISFACTION WITH THE PEER REVIEW SYSTEM

Based on a recent survey by the PRC, 64% of academics are satisfied with the current system of peer review, and only 12% claimed to be ‘dissatisfied’ ( 7 ). The large majority, 85%, agreed with the statement that ‘scientific communication is greatly helped by peer review’ ( 7 ). There was a similarly high level of support (83%) for the idea that peer review ‘provides control in scientific communication’ ( 7 ).

HOW TO PEER REVIEW EFFECTIVELY

The following are ten tips on how to be an effective peer reviewer as indicated by Brian Lucey, an expert on the subject ( 22 ):

1) Be professional

Peer review is a mutual responsibility among fellow scientists, and scientists are expected, as part of the academic community, to take part in peer review. If one is to expect others to review their work, they should commit to reviewing the work of others as well, and put effort into it.

2) Be pleasant

If the paper is of low quality, suggest that it be rejected, but do not leave ad hominem comments. There is no benefit to being ruthless.

3) Read the invite

When emailing a scientist to ask them to conduct a peer review, the majority of journals will provide a link to either accept or reject. Do not respond to the email, respond to the link.

4) Be helpful

Suggest how the authors can overcome the shortcomings in their paper. A review should guide the author on what is good and what needs work from the reviewer’s perspective.

5) Be scientific

The peer reviewer plays the role of a scientific peer, not an editor for proofreading or decision-making. Don’t fill a review with comments on editorial and typographic issues. Instead, focus on adding value with scientific knowledge and commenting on the credibility of the research conducted and conclusions drawn. If the paper has a lot of typographical errors, suggest that it be professionally proof edited as part of the review.

6) Be timely

Stick to the timeline given when conducting a peer review. Editors track who is reviewing what and when and will know if someone is late on completing a review. It is important to be timely both out of respect for the journal and the author, as well as to not develop a reputation of being late for review deadlines.

7) Be realistic

The peer reviewer must be realistic about the work presented, the changes they suggest and their role. Peer reviewers may set the bar too high for the paper they are editing by proposing changes that are too ambitious and editors must override them.

8) Be empathetic

Ensure that the review is scientific, helpful and courteous. Be sensitive and respectful with word choice and tone in a review.

Remember that both specialists and generalists can provide valuable insight when peer reviewing. Editors will try to get both specialised and general reviewers for any particular paper to allow for different perspectives. If someone is asked to review, the editor has determined they have a valid and useful role to play, even if the paper is not in their area of expertise.

10) Be organised

A review requires structure and logical flow. A reviewer should proofread their review before submitting it for structural, grammatical and spelling errors as well as for clarity. Most publishers provide short guides on structuring a peer review on their website. Begin with an overview of the proposed improvements; then provide feedback on the paper structure, the quality of data sources and methods of investigation used, the logical flow of argument, and the validity of conclusions drawn. Then provide feedback on style, voice and lexical concerns, with suggestions on how to improve.

In addition, the American Physiology Society (APS) recommends in its Peer Review 101 Handout that peer reviewers should put themselves in both the editor’s and author’s shoes to ensure that they provide what both the editor and the author need and expect ( 11 ). To please the editor, the reviewer should ensure that the peer review is completed on time, and that it provides clear explanations to back up recommendations. To be helpful to the author, the reviewer must ensure that their feedback is constructive. It is suggested that the reviewer take time to think about the paper; they should read it once, wait at least a day, and then re-read it before writing the review ( 11 ). The APS also suggests that Graduate students and researchers pay attention to how peer reviewers edit their work, as well as to what edits they find helpful, in order to learn how to peer review effectively ( 11 ). Additionally, it is suggested that Graduate students practice reviewing by editing their peers’ papers and asking a faculty member for feedback on their efforts. It is recommended that young scientists offer to peer review as often as possible in order to become skilled at the process ( 11 ). The majority of students, fellows and trainees do not get formal training in peer review, but rather learn by observing their mentors. According to the APS, one acquires experience through networking and referrals, and should therefore try to strengthen relationships with journal editors by offering to review manuscripts ( 11 ). The APS also suggests that experienced reviewers provide constructive feedback to students and junior colleagues on their peer review efforts, and encourages them to peer review to demonstrate the importance of this process in improving science ( 11 ).

The peer reviewer should only comment on areas of the manuscript that they are knowledgeable about ( 23 ). If there is any section of the manuscript they feel they are not qualified to review, they should mention this in their comments and not provide further feedback on that section. The peer reviewer is not permitted to share any part of the manuscript with a colleague (even if they may be more knowledgeable in the subject matter) without first obtaining permission from the editor ( 23 ). If a peer reviewer comes across something they are unsure of in the paper, they can consult the literature to try and gain insight. It is important for scientists to remember that if a paper can be improved by the expertise of one of their colleagues, the journal must be informed of the colleague’s help, and approval must be obtained for their colleague to read the protected document. Additionally, the colleague must be identified in the confidential comments to the editor, in order to ensure that he/she is appropriately credited for any contributions ( 23 ). It is the job of the reviewer to make sure that the colleague assisting is aware of the confidentiality of the peer review process ( 23 ). Once the review is complete, the manuscript must be destroyed and cannot be saved electronically by the reviewers ( 23 ).

COMMON ERRORS IN SCIENTIFIC PAPERS

When performing a peer review, there are some common scientific errors to look out for. Most of these errors are violations of logic and common sense: these may include contradicting statements, unwarranted conclusions, suggestion of causation when there is only support for correlation, inappropriate extrapolation, circular reasoning, or pursuit of a trivial question ( 24 ). It is also common for authors to suggest that two variables are different because the effects of one variable are statistically significant while the effects of the other variable are not, rather than directly comparing the two variables ( 24 ). Authors sometimes oversee a confounding variable and do not control for it, or forget to include important details on how their experiments were controlled or the physical state of the organisms studied ( 24 ). Another common fault is the author’s failure to define terms or use words with precision, as these practices can mislead readers ( 24 ). Jargon and/or misused terms can be a serious problem in papers. Inaccurate statements about specific citations are also a common occurrence ( 24 ). Additionally, many studies produce knowledge that can be applied to areas of science outside the scope of the original study, therefore it is better for reviewers to look at the novelty of the idea, conclusions, data, and methodology, rather than scrutinize whether or not the paper answered the specific question at hand ( 24 ). Although it is important to recognize these points, when performing a review it is generally better practice for the peer reviewer to not focus on a checklist of things that could be wrong, but rather carefully identify the problems specific to each paper and continuously ask themselves if anything is missing ( 24 ). An extremely detailed description of how to conduct peer review effectively is presented in the paper How I Review an Original Scientific Article written by Frederic G. Hoppin, Jr. It can be accessed through the American Physiological Society website under the Peer Review Resources section.

CRITICISM OF PEER REVIEW

A major criticism of peer review is that there is little evidence that the process actually works, that it is actually an effective screen for good quality scientific work, and that it actually improves the quality of scientific literature. As a 2002 study published in the Journal of the American Medical Association concluded, ‘Editorial peer review, although widely used, is largely untested and its effects are uncertain’ ( 25 ). Critics also argue that peer review is not effective at detecting errors. Highlighting this point, an experiment by Godlee et al. published in the British Medical Journal (BMJ) inserted eight deliberate errors into a paper that was nearly ready for publication, and then sent the paper to 420 potential reviewers ( 7 ). Of the 420 reviewers that received the paper, 221 (53%) responded, the average number of errors spotted by reviewers was two, no reviewer spotted more than five errors, and 35 reviewers (16%) did not spot any.

Another criticism of peer review is that the process is not conducted thoroughly by scientific conferences with the goal of obtaining large numbers of submitted papers. Such conferences often accept any paper sent in, regardless of its credibility or the prevalence of errors, because the more papers they accept, the more money they can make from author registration fees ( 26 ). This misconduct was exposed in 2014 by three MIT graduate students by the names of Jeremy Stribling, Dan Aguayo and Maxwell Krohn, who developed a simple computer program called SCIgen that generates nonsense papers and presents them as scientific papers ( 26 ). Subsequently, a nonsense SCIgen paper submitted to a conference was promptly accepted. Nature recently reported that French researcher Cyril Labbé discovered that sixteen SCIgen nonsense papers had been used by the German academic publisher Springer ( 26 ). Over 100 nonsense papers generated by SCIgen were published by the US Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE) ( 26 ). Both organisations have been working to remove the papers. Labbé developed a program to detect SCIgen papers and has made it freely available to ensure publishers and conference organizers do not accept nonsense work in the future. It is available at this link: http://scigendetect.on.imag.fr/main.php ( 26 ).

Additionally, peer review is often criticized for being unable to accurately detect plagiarism. However, many believe that detecting plagiarism cannot practically be included as a component of peer review. As explained by Alice Tuff, development manager at Sense About Science, ‘The vast majority of authors and reviewers think peer review should detect plagiarism (81%) but only a minority (38%) think it is capable. The academic time involved in detecting plagiarism through peer review would cause the system to grind to a halt’ ( 27 ). Publishing house Elsevier began developing electronic plagiarism tools with the help of journal editors in 2009 to help improve this issue ( 27 ).

It has also been argued that peer review has lowered research quality by limiting creativity amongst researchers. Proponents of this view claim that peer review has repressed scientists from pursuing innovative research ideas and bold research questions that have the potential to make major advances and paradigm shifts in the field, as they believe that this work will likely be rejected by their peers upon review ( 28 ). Indeed, in some cases peer review may result in rejection of innovative research, as some studies may not seem particularly strong initially, yet may be capable of yielding very interesting and useful developments when examined under different circumstances, or in the light of new information ( 28 ). Scientists that do not believe in peer review argue that the process stifles the development of ingenious ideas, and thus the release of fresh knowledge and new developments into the scientific community.

Another issue that peer review is criticized for, is that there are a limited number of people that are competent to conduct peer review compared to the vast number of papers that need reviewing. An enormous number of papers published (1.3 million papers in 23,750 journals in 2006), but the number of competent peer reviewers available could not have reviewed them all ( 29 ). Thus, people who lack the required expertise to analyze the quality of a research paper are conducting reviews, and weak papers are being accepted as a result. It is now possible to publish any paper in an obscure journal that claims to be peer-reviewed, though the paper or journal itself could be substandard ( 29 ). On a similar note, the US National Library of Medicine indexes 39 journals that specialize in alternative medicine, and though they all identify themselves as “peer-reviewed”, they rarely publish any high quality research ( 29 ). This highlights the fact that peer review of more controversial or specialized work is typically performed by people who are interested and hold similar views or opinions as the author, which can cause bias in their review. For instance, a paper on homeopathy is likely to be reviewed by fellow practicing homeopaths, and thus is likely to be accepted as credible, though other scientists may find the paper to be nonsense ( 29 ). In some cases, papers are initially published, but their credibility is challenged at a later date and they are subsequently retracted. Retraction Watch is a website dedicated to revealing papers that have been retracted after publishing, potentially due to improper peer review ( 30 ).

Additionally, despite its many positive outcomes, peer review is also criticized for being a delay to the dissemination of new knowledge into the scientific community, and as an unpaid-activity that takes scientists’ time away from activities that they would otherwise prioritize, such as research and teaching, for which they are paid ( 31 ). As described by Eva Amsen, Outreach Director for F1000Research, peer review was originally developed as a means of helping editors choose which papers to publish when journals had to limit the number of papers they could print in one issue ( 32 ). However, nowadays most journals are available online, either exclusively or in addition to print, and many journals have very limited printing runs ( 32 ). Since there are no longer page limits to journals, any good work can and should be published. Consequently, being selective for the purpose of saving space in a journal is no longer a valid excuse that peer reviewers can use to reject a paper ( 32 ). However, some reviewers have used this excuse when they have personal ulterior motives, such as getting their own research published first.

RECENT INITIATIVES TOWARDS IMPROVING PEER REVIEW

F1000Research was launched in January 2013 by Faculty of 1000 as an open access journal that immediately publishes papers (after an initial check to ensure that the paper is in fact produced by a scientist and has not been plagiarised), and then conducts transparent post-publication peer review ( 32 ). F1000Research aims to prevent delays in new science reaching the academic community that are caused by prolonged publication times ( 32 ). It also aims to make peer reviewing more fair by eliminating any anonymity, which prevents reviewers from delaying the completion of a review so they can publish their own similar work first ( 32 ). F1000Research offers completely open peer review, where everything is published, including the name of the reviewers, their review reports, and the editorial decision letters ( 32 ).

PeerJ was founded by Jason Hoyt and Peter Binfield in June 2012 as an open access, peer reviewed scholarly journal for the Biological and Medical Sciences ( 33 ). PeerJ selects articles to publish based only on scientific and methodological soundness, not on subjective determinants of ‘impact ’, ‘novelty’ or ‘interest’ ( 34 ). It works on a “lifetime publishing plan” model which charges scientists for publishing plans that give them lifetime rights to publish with PeerJ, rather than charging them per publication ( 34 ). PeerJ also encourages open peer review, and authors are given the option to post the full peer review history of their submission with their published article ( 34 ). PeerJ also offers a pre-print review service called PeerJ Pre-prints, in which paper drafts are reviewed before being sent to PeerJ to publish ( 34 ).

Rubriq is an independent peer review service designed by Shashi Mudunuri and Keith Collier to improve the peer review system ( 35 ). Rubriq is intended to decrease redundancy in the peer review process so that the time lost in redundant reviewing can be put back into research ( 35 ). According to Keith Collier, over 15 million hours are lost each year to redundant peer review, as papers get rejected from one journal and are subsequently submitted to a less prestigious journal where they are reviewed again ( 35 ). Authors often have to submit their manuscript to multiple journals, and are often rejected multiple times before they find the right match. This process could take months or even years ( 35 ). Rubriq makes peer review portable in order to help authors choose the journal that is best suited for their manuscript from the beginning, thus reducing the time before their paper is published ( 35 ). Rubriq operates under an author-pay model, in which the author pays a fee and their manuscript undergoes double-blind peer review by three expert academic reviewers using a standardized scorecard ( 35 ). The majority of the author’s fee goes towards a reviewer honorarium ( 35 ). The papers are also screened for plagiarism using iThenticate ( 35 ). Once the manuscript has been reviewed by the three experts, the most appropriate journal for submission is determined based on the topic and quality of the paper ( 35 ). The paper is returned to the author in 1-2 weeks with the Rubriq Report ( 35 ). The author can then submit their paper to the suggested journal with the Rubriq Report attached. The Rubriq Report will give the journal editors a much stronger incentive to consider the paper as it shows that three experts have recommended the paper to them ( 35 ). Rubriq also has its benefits for reviewers; the Rubriq scorecard gives structure to the peer review process, and thus makes it consistent and efficient, which decreases time and stress for the reviewer. Reviewers also receive feedback on their reviews and most significantly, they are compensated for their time ( 35 ). Journals also benefit, as they receive pre-screened papers, reducing the number of papers sent to their own reviewers, which often end up rejected ( 35 ). This can reduce reviewer fatigue, and allow only higher-quality articles to be sent to their peer reviewers ( 35 ).

According to Eva Amsen, peer review and scientific publishing are moving in a new direction, in which all papers will be posted online, and a post-publication peer review will take place that is independent of specific journal criteria and solely focused on improving paper quality ( 32 ). Journals will then choose papers that they find relevant based on the peer reviews and publish those papers as a collection ( 32 ). In this process, peer review and individual journals are uncoupled ( 32 ). In Keith Collier’s opinion, post-publication peer review is likely to become more prevalent as a complement to pre-publication peer review, but not as a replacement ( 35 ). Post-publication peer review will not serve to identify errors and fraud but will provide an additional measurement of impact ( 35 ). Collier also believes that as journals and publishers consolidate into larger systems, there will be stronger potential for “cascading” and shared peer review ( 35 ).

CONCLUDING REMARKS

Peer review has become fundamental in assisting editors in selecting credible, high quality, novel and interesting research papers to publish in scientific journals and to ensure the correction of any errors or issues present in submitted papers. Though the peer review process still has some flaws and deficiencies, a more suitable screening method for scientific papers has not yet been proposed or developed. Researchers have begun and must continue to look for means of addressing the current issues with peer review to ensure that it is a full-proof system that ensures only quality research papers are released into the scientific community.

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What Sets Successful Startup Accelerators Apart

• Susan Cohen,
• Benjamin Hallen,
• Christopher Bingham

Research reveals three ways they help early-stage companies achieve higher funding and survival rates.

What role do business accelerators play in boosting the growth of early-stage companies? Accelerators provide a structured environment of mentorship, education, and resources in exchange for equity. And they work. Research involving numerous accelerator programs and interviews with various stakeholders reveals that startups in these programs typically achieve higher funding and survival rates. Three key strategies identified for their effectiveness include compressed advice, which offers intensive mentorship and customer feedback to refine business strategies quickly; friendly sibling rivalry, encouraging open sharing and competition among startups for accelerated learning and execution; and schedule transitions, enforcing structured developmental activities to balance broad learning with focused execution. These strategies, effective in the high-paced startup environment, are also applicable to broader organizational contexts for driving innovation and growth.

Business accelerators, often termed “startup accelerators” or “startup factories,” are organizations dedicated to fostering the rapid growth of early-stage companies. Typically operated by investors, corporations, or independent entities, they offer structured programs that usually span three to four months, providing selected startups with a combination of mentorship, educational workshops, networking opportunities, and often a modest amount of capital and office space. In exchange for these resources, accelerators usually require a small percentage of equity in participating startups.

• SC Susan Cohen is an associate professor at the Terry College of Business at the University of Georgia.
• BH Benjamin Hallen is the Dempsey Endowed Professor in Strategy and Entrepreneurship at the Foster School of Business, University of Washington and an associate editor at the  Strategic Management Journal.  
• CB Christopher Bingham is the Phillip Hettleman Distinguished Professor of Strategy and Entrepreneurship at the Kenan-Flagler Business School at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.

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Perspective article, an urgent call for using real human urine in decentralized sanitation research and advancing protocols for preparing synthetic urine.

• 1 Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Energy and Technology, Uppsala, Sweden
• 2 Chemical Engineering Department, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
• 3 Future Water Institute, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
• 4 Civil Engineering Department, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa

Recycling resources excreted in human urine can help achieve a sustainable future and circular economy in the sanitation space. However, many studies researching different technologies for safely recycling urine do not use real human urine for experimentation, relying instead on recipes for making synthetic or artificial solutions that attempt to mimic the composition of real human urine. This methodological choice is the focus of this article, which points out that the real urine matrix is extremely complex, with a metabolome (>2,500 metabolites) that differs greatly from that of synthetic urine (<15 metabolites). Therefore, experimental results obtained using synthetic urine can also differ from those obtained using real urine. To exemplify this, we review published literature in terms of four aspects: i) solubility of chemicals and buffering capacity of urine, ii) dissolved organics and membrane fouling, iii) thermodynamic modelling of chemical speciation in urine, and iv) removal of pollutants from urine. We recognise that there is a place for synthetic urine in sanitation research and provide examples of studies where its use is appropriate. Lastly, based on literature from the medical sciences, we provide preliminary guidelines on protocols for preparing synthetic urine that could improve experimentation involving human urine and accelerate the water sector’s transition to circularity.

1 Introduction

In decentralised sanitation systems, human urine can be collected separately from other domestic wastewater and treated to make several useful products, such as water, fertiliser, biostimulants, chemicals and electricity ( Larsen et al., 2013 ). Such recycling has the potential to reduce human transgression of several planetary boundaries, including those on biogeochemical flows of nitrogen and phosphorus ( Perez-Mercado et al., 2022 ; Rockstrom et al., 2023 ). Separate treatment of urine can also benefit existing centralised wastewater treatment plants, e.g. , by decreasing the nitrogen load and thus reducing the energy demand for nitrification ( Wilsenach and Loosdrecht, 2006 ).

Recycling of human urine is a growing research topic within the water sector ( Aliahmad et al., 2022 ). Several novel technologies for treating urine are currently being developed [for recent reviews on this topic, see Larsen et al. ( Larsen et al., 2021 )] and implemented in transdisciplinary initiatives like the Horizon Europe project “P2Green” ( https://p2green.eu/ ) and the Australian Research Council research hub “NiCE” ( https://www.nicehub.org/ ). A growing number of experts believe that decentralised treatment of wastewater could help the water sector accelerate its transition to circularity and that it is well poised to achieve such a paradigm shift ( Guest et al., 2009 ; Larsen et al., 2013 ).

These developments are promising for our own research groups, which are also working in this area. However, a particular trend in current research on decentralised sanitation that gives us cause for concern, and which we address in this article, is the use of synthetic human urine . An analysis of urine research literature, specifically focusing on nutrient recovery, published over the past 5 years, shows an increasing trend in the use of synthetic urine ( Supplementary Material , Supplementary Figure S1 ), with approximately 40% of these studies conducted exclusively with synthetic urine. Of particular concern is that among several publications that exclusively used synthetic urine, 21% referred to the type of urine used as “human urine” in the title of their publications ( Supplementary Material , Supplementary Figure S1 ). For multiple reasons, many studies do not use real human urine in experimental work, and instead rely on recipes for making synthetic solutions that attempt to mimic the composition of real human urine. A simple search of the Scopus database shows that there are hundreds of published articles that have either used synthetic urine for experimentation or have developed assumptions, hypotheses and conclusions based on published studies using synthetic urine. Using synthetic solutions to simulate real fluids is a legitimate scientific method, and one that is not uncommon in wastewater research. In the decentralised sanitation sector, many recipes that can successfully mimic specific physical and chemical properties of human faeces, faecal sludge and greywater have been developed ( Penn et al., 2018 ). In early experimental work, such as proof-of-concept research studies, use of simulants like synthetic urine can help advance science by shedding light on mechanistic aspects of a treatment technology. However, in some instances, using only synthetic urine for experimentation could be problematic from a methodological perspective, especially if protocols for preparing synthetic urine are not well-established and validated by comparison with real urine. To argue why this could be the case, in this article we highlight some of the differences in composition and properties of synthetic urine and real urine. We draw on selected published literature to show how differences between types of urine affect experimental results and their real-life implications. We recognise that there is a place for synthetic/artificial urine in sanitation research and provide examples of cases where its use is appropriate. Our intention is not to criticize studies or researchers that have used synthetic urine in the past. Both of our research groups have also conducted experimental work involving synthetic urine ( Table 1 ). In fact, the observations we made during those studies regarding the differences between real urine and synthetic urine motivated us, in part, to write this perspective article. Overall, we think there is a risk that findings of experiments conducted solely with synthetic urine, especially when prepared using unvalidated protocols, may not be generalisable and transferrable to real-life sanitation systems involving real urine. For instance, studies conducted exclusively using synthetic urine might inadvertently cast a positive light on a urine treatment technology, even if that technology may not prove equally effective when applied to real urine. Therefore, in this perspective article, these authors aim to share with the research community working on decentralised sanitation certain concerns and important considerations when working with synthetic urine. We hope that the article will stimulate a discussion within the research community on the benefits of using real human urine for experimentation work.

TABLE 1 . Concentrations of different constituents in a selection of synthetic fresh human urine recipes described in the literature. Recipes are shown in increasing order of number of metabolites in urine.

2 Real human urine metabolome vs. synthetic human urine metabolome

Urination is the primary route by which the human body eliminates water-soluble wastes. Urine is generated when the kidneys remove water, water-soluble wastes and sugars from the bloodstream. The urine matrix is extremely complex. The major inorganic components of urine include ions such as sodium, potassium, chloride and ammonium, while the major organic metabolites include urea, creatinine, hippuric acid and citric acid ( Putnam, 1971 ; Bouatra et al., 2013 ). Urine also normally contains several other ions, such as calcium, magnesium, phosphate and sulphate, as well as hundreds of metabolic breakdown products from the consumption of food and beverages, the body’s endogenous waste and exogenous compounds such as pharmaceutical drugs or drug metabolites. The human urine metabolome database ( http://www.urinemetabolome.ca ) lists more than 3,000 metabolites or metabolite species that have been detected in human urine using existing analytical methods and technologies, the majority of which are endogenous compounds. As illustrated in Figure 1 , metabolites in real human urine span a wide range of concentrations (nearly 11 orders of magnitude), chemical structures and solubilities (0.0012 g/L for androsterone to 1000 g/L for ethanolamine, according to Bouatra et al. ( Bouatra et al., 2013 )). The concentration of an average metabolite in normal human urine varies by ± 50% ( Bouatra et al., 2013 ), because a wide range of factors, including diet, health, age, gender and activity level, determine the composition of urine ( Rose et al., 2015 ). However, irrespective of the gender or time of the day when it is collected, urine contains more than 90 metabolites with 100% occurrence ( Bouatra et al., 2013 ), but the concentrations always vary. According to Putnam ( Putnam, 1971 ), 68 metabolites contribute >99% of the solutes in human urine. In contrast, synthetic urine recipes in the sanitation field typically contain <15 metabolites ( Table 1 ).

FIGURE 1 . Distribution (%) of organic metabolites measured in real human urine by Putnam ( Putnam, 1971 ) according to their (A) chemical structure and (B) solubility in water at 25°C. Standard solubility definitions were taken from WHO ( WHO, 2022 ).

In published literature on wastewater treatment, it is common to encounter the use of synthetic urine or artificial urine, which is essentially a solution of the major inorganic and organic components in real urine, dissolved in water at room temperature. Table 1 lists a small selection of recipes that have been used in different studies to prepare synthetic urine or are referred to in studies as human urine. While this list is certainly not exhaustive, it clearly shows that there is considerable variation in the choice of inorganic and organic ingredients used for making urine, with some recipes using just one metabolite ( Asiain-Mira et al., 2022 ) and some using up to 11 metabolites ( Wilsenach et al., 2007 ). Urine also has a natural bacterial biome ( Lewis et al., 2013 ) and virome ( Li et al., 2023 ) which is not accounted for by these recipes. Therefore, no synthetic urine recipe, however complex, can ever be truly representative of real human urine.

3 Definitions for different types of urine

It is important to distinguish what type of urine a recipe is attempting to mimic. Fresh urine refers to urine collected immediately after it is excreted, although there is no consensus within the research community on how long after excretion urine can be considered fresh. In the literature, some studies have used freshly excreted urine immediately in experiments ( Flanagan and Randall, 2018 ) or have stored it for a few hours ( Vasiljev et al., 2022 ) or days ( Simha et al., 2018 ; Ray et al., 2020 ) at different temperatures (3°C–30°C) before use. However, in general the term “fresh” is typically used to indicate that no urea hydrolysis has occurred in urine. If fresh urine is diluted with flushwater, it is referred to as diluted fresh urine ( e.g. , see synthetic recipe of Han et al. ( Han et al., 2022 ) in Table 1 ). If fresh urine is treated to inhibit urease-catalysed hydrolysis of urea to ammonia, for instance by acidification ( Simha et al., 2023 ), alkalisation ( Randall et al., 2016 ) or oxidation ( Lv et al., 2020 ), the literature defines it as stabilised fresh urine . If urea hydrolysis is not prevented and the majority of the nitrogen in urine is in the form of ammonia, then the urine is considered to be hydrolysed or ureolysed ( Udert et al., 2003a ). If all the urea excreted in fresh urine is not hydrolysed to ammonia, then the urine is considered to be partially hydrolysed ( Tuantet et al., 2013 ). If hydrolysed urine is treated biologically to stabilise ammonia nitrogen, for instance by nitrification ( Udert and Wachter, 2012 ), then literature defines it as biologically stabilised urine . However, studies using synthetic urine sometimes fail to report what type of urine their recipe represents. Each type of urine has a distinct composition and physical and chemical properties, and distinguishing between the types is important as it has implications for further urine treatment (see, e.g. , Simbeye et al. ( Simbeye et al., 2023 ) for an insight into the effect of type of human urine on recovery of phosphate as vivianite). This is one area where the research community would benefit by working together to develop consistent terminology and best practices for reporting experiments involving human urine.

4 Implications of the differences between synthetic urine and real urine

To highlight some key differences between synthetic urine and real urine and the implications of these differences, we conducted a non-systemic literature review, the results of which are summarised below.

4.1 Solubility of chemicals and buffering capacity of urine

Type of urine matrix affects the solubility of different chemicals and the capacity of urine to buffer changes in pH. For example, fresh urine can be dosed with sparingly soluble alkaline Earth chemicals such as Mg(OH) 2 and Ca(OH) 2 to inhibit urease activity and urea hydrolysis. However, Mg(OH) 2 is 40% less soluble in synthetic urine and, due to lower buffering capacity, also has higher pH (>10.8) after treatment than real urine after treatment (pH < 10.6) ( Simha et al., 2022 ). Studies by Ray et al. ( Ray et al., 2018 ) and Simha et al. (2023) have shown that the acid dose needed to shift the pH of fresh urine to below 3.0 is at least two-fold higher for real urine. These are important observations since the stability of most urine treatment processes relies on accurately dosing chemicals. The operating costs of decentralised sanitation systems can also be significantly affected by the chemical demand for treating urine.

The prevailing pH affects both the solubility and the degradation of different organic metabolites in urine. For instance, the rate of degradation of creatine increases as the pH decreases ( Jager et al., 2011 ). In studies on urine acidification and concentration by reverse osmosis, Courtney and Randall ( Courtney and Randall, 2021b ) have shown that crystals of uric acid dihydrate form in acidified real urine, but not in synthetic urine, resulting in scaling of the membrane surface. These observations are consistent with findings by Wang and Königsberger ( Wang and Königsberger, 1998 ) that the solubility of uric acid decreases as the pH declines and ionic strength of the solution increases. These results suggest that reverse osmosis is not well suited for concentrating acidified urine, while other treatments such as evaporation are not significantly affected by biofouling and scaling. However, apart from three studies on reverse osmosis in the literature (viz. Ek et al. ( Ek et al., 2006 ), Ray et al. ( Ray et al., 2020 ), Courtney and Randall ( Courtney and Randall, 2021b )), to our knowledge other studies have only used synthetic urine for experimentation.

Poorly soluble organic compounds tend to co-precipitate with inorganic compounds in real urine. In a study focusing on precipitation of phosphate from fresh urine as vivianite, Simbeye et al. ( Simbeye et al., 2023 ) showed that relatively pure (95%) vivianite could be produced from synthetic urine, but that the purity of vivianite decreases to 75% when made from real urine. This is because organic metabolites in real urine form complexes with divalent ions such as Fe 2+ and these complexes can grow around vivianite crystals ( Wei et al., 2019 ) and limit its yield and purity. These differences ultimately affect process economics, as further treatment will be required to improve product purity ( e.g ., washing vivianite with solvents to selectively remove organic compounds).

4.2 Dissolved organic compounds and membrane fouling

Many synthetic urine recipes ( Table 1 ) are made up of salts to replicate the major inorganic metabolites in urine. However, real urine also has a high organic component (about 10 g COD L -1 according to ( Udert et al., 2006 ) or approximately 25% of the total dissolved solids estimated by Putnam ( Putnam, 1971 )). A research area where the missing organics in synthetic urine leads to significantly differing experimental results is in membrane research (reverse osmosis, nanofiltration, membrane distillation, etc.), specifically with regards to membrane fouling. For example, during membrane distillation, a crystalline deposit forms on the membrane when synthetic urine is used, while with real urine the deposit that forms is more complex and composed of a rich organic fraction ( Kamranvand et al., 2018 ). Bacteria ( Crane et al., 2022 ) and a combination of urinary sugars and protein ( Guizani et al., 2016 ) have been shown to cause membrane fouling when urine is concentrated by forward osmosis. Zhang et al. ( Zhang et al., 2023 ) found that fouling of a hollow fibre membrane contactor for treating real hydrolysed urine increases as the pH of urine decreases.

The solubility ( Franks et al., 2024 ) and the charge ( Wen-Qiong et al., 2019 ) of organic compounds are both affected by pH. If the charge on the membrane is the same as the charge on an organic compound, electrostatic repulsion between the organic compound and the membrane pores will increase, thus reducing the potential for fouling ( Van Reis et al., 1997 ). Higher solubility means that a higher urine concentration factor can be achieved during treatment before organic compounds precipitate. The properties of the feed solution (pH, ionic strength) and the membrane (charge, hydrophobicity, roughness) affect thermodynamic interactions between dissolved organic compounds and the membrane surface, and influence the mechanisms that cause fouling ( Tang et al., 2011 ).

Experimental results obtained when treating real urine are not always inferior to those obtained when treating synthetic urine. Studies by Courtney and Randall ( Courtney and Randall, 2021b ) and Pronk et al. ( Pronk et al., 2006 ) observed increased rejection of urea during membrane treatment of real urine. Courtney and Randall ( Courtney and Randall, 2021b ) found that improved rejection of urea increased overall urea recovery from 79.2% to 85.5% when comparing synthetic urine and real urine. Pronk et al. ( Pronk et al., 2006 ) attributed the increase in rejection of uncharged molecules such as urea to complexation of compounds with the organic substances in real urine. There is also evidence that urea promotes protein unfolding by directly interacting with polar moieties of proteins via hydrogen bonding ( Bennion and Daggett, 2003 ). Unfortunately, synthetic urine cannot be improved by merely adding organics to the recipe used, as in many of these cases the exact organic compounds causing the fouling have not yet been identified (only that they are organic is known) ( Courtney and Randall, 2021b ; Crane et al., 2022 ). In these cases, using both real and synthetic urine for experiments becomes valuable for comparing fouling (or lack thereof).

4.3 Thermodynamic modelling of chemical speciation in urine

All models used to simulate a process in urine essentially model synthetic urine. As with making synthetic urine, it is challenging to include every metabolite excreted in real urine in a thermodynamic model. Many modelling databases do not include a comprehensive list of urinary metabolites. For example, the chemistry database of the thermodynamic modelling software OLI ( OLI Systems and Inc, 2020 ) does not include major organic metabolites excreted in urine, such as creatine, creatinine and uric acid. The importance of including or excluding a metabolite will depend on the parameter being measured/simulated. Udert et al. ( Udert et al., 2003b ) developed a model using Aquasim to estimate the potential for mineral precipitation in sanitation systems that separately collect human urine and found good agreement between simulated and experimental results when the degree of dilution of urine by flushwater was accurately accounted for. Courtney et al. ( Courtney et al., 2021 ) used the same thermodynamic model (in Aquasim) to simulate removal of calcium from human urine by air and CO 2 bubbling and found that initially the model did not accurately simulate the pH of urine as a function of bubbling duration. They attributed this to the salinity of urine influencing the pK a of HCO 3 − /CO 3 −2 ( Millero et al., 2006 ) and to inclusion of creatinine in the model affecting the buffering capacity of urine at pH 9.2. When adjusted for these two factors, the model accurately captured the change in pH of urine during bubbling ( Courtney et al., 2021 ). Inaccurate simulation of chemical speciation in urine and using synthetic human urine with only a few metabolites therefore have implications for the design of experiments and treatment processes ( e.g ., operating conditions such as pH and temperature), and for analysis of experimental results ( e.g ., when evaluating the form and fate of plant-essential nutrients excreted in urine after treatment).

4.4 Removal of pollutants from urine

Several previous studies have used synthetic urine to evaluate removal of pollutants that can potentially be excreted in urine, such as residues and metabolites of pharmaceutical drugs, pesticides, hormones, personal care products, chemicals used for cleaning toilets and heavy metals ( Landry et al., 2015 ; Sun et al., 2018 ; Almuntashiri et al., 2022 ; Goulart et al., 2022 ; Rodriguez et al., 2022 ; Yao et al., 2022 ). Many of these are presented as proof-of-concept studies, and there are often no follow-up studies to evaluate whether the treatments can be replicated with a real urine matrix. In some follow-up studies, clear and significant deviations have been observed between studies, primarily because of differences between the urine matrices. There is evidence that analytical detection of pollutants is significantly affected by the type of matrix studied. For instance, ionisation of the target analytes in LC-MS/MS can be affected by endogenous compounds present in urine ( Rossmann et al., 2015 ). The matrix can also affect the removal efficiency of pollutants because the physical and chemical properties of real urine are different from those of synthetic urine, and no synthetic recipe has been developed to account for the hundreds of endogenous organic metabolites excreted in urine ( Figure 1 ). For example, Solanki and Boyer ( Solanki and Boyer, 2017 ) found that >90% removal of pharmaceuticals from synthetic urine could be achieved by adsorption onto biochar. However, in follow-up studies involving real urine, they found that removal of pharmaceuticals declined to 40% because of competition for adsorption sites by dissolved organic compounds naturally excreted in urine, such as urobilin ( Solanki and Boyer, 2019 ). In a study evaluating degradation of 75 organic micropollutants (OMPs) by a UV-based advanced oxidation process, Demissie et al. ( Demissie et al., 2023a ) observed average ΣOMP degradation of 99% (±4%) in Milli-Q water, but only 55% (±36%) in real fresh urine. This is because endogenous organic compounds in urine can competitively absorb UV light (creatinine and amino acids have high UV absorbability according to Yokoyama et al. ( Yokoyama et al., 2005 )) and can scavenge free radicals. In another study, Demissie et al. ( Demissie et al., 2023b ) found that the UV dose needed to irreversibly denature jack bean ( Canavalia ensiformis ) urease (EC 3.5.1.5) in real fresh human urine was 25-fold higher than the dose needed to denature urease in synthetic fresh human urine. Unfortunately, there seems to be more literature available on treatment of synthetic human urine than on treatment of real human urine for removal of contaminants such as micropollutants.

5 Why and when to use synthetic urine for experimentation?

While synthetic urine is not exactly representative of real urine, it does have many uses and benefits. Below we list a few valid reasons why synthetic urine may be used in research:

1. The composition of real urine varies considerably, as it is influenced by diet, health, age, gender, activity level of people and other factors ( Rose et al., 2015 ). The composition of synthetic urine can be fixed, which can be desirable when conducting experiments to evaluate the influence of several operating conditions on treatment objectives ( Tarpeh et al., 2018 ). The experimental results obtained when synthetic urine is used are generally more consistent than results obtained using real urine with varying composition ( Kabdaşlı et al., 2022 ).

2. The use of synthetic urine is appropriate in proof-of-concept research that proposes novel technologies and methods to treat urine, e.g. , Arve and Popat ( Arve and Popat, 2021 ). If experimentation using synthetic urine yields undesirable results, then further testing can be avoided, and time and resources can be saved. For instance, Ray et al. ( Ray et al., 2018 ) showed that zinc and silver ions are not effective inhibitors of urease in synthetic fresh urine as they precipitate with phosphate and chloride naturally present in urine, although the inhibition of urease in soil by these heavy metal ions is well established.

3. Using a synthetic recipe makes it easier to reverse-engineer processes and identify metabolites or properties of urine that significantly affect the outcome of a treatment ( Solanki and Boyer, 2019 ). In addition, different technologies can be more fairly compared against each other if the same synthetic urine recipe is used to evaluate their differences ( Chen et al., 2023 ).

4. Synthetic urine can be helpful for developing new analytical methods for targeted analysis of metabolites ( Scherr and Sarmah, 2011 ) and for educational purposes where the aim is to train students in analytical chemistry or wastewater engineering.

5. Computer-based thermodynamic models of chemical speciation must be validated in real experiments ( Courtney and Randall, 2023 ). Synthetic urine is particularly helpful in such cases since it is not always possible to conduct a full metabolomic analysis of real urine. Many metabolites also do not exist in the chemistry databases of software tools.

6 Guidelines on protocols for preparing synthetic fresh human urine

As shown in Table 1 , several recipes for preparing synthetic human urine are found in the water and sanitation literature. However, to the best of our knowledge, none of these recipes use well-established protocols for preparing synthetic urine, ( Lienert and Larsen, 2009 ; Jewitt, 2011 ; Furlong et al., 2019 ; Simha et al., 2021 ), nor have they been validated by comparison with real urine specimens. On the other hand, there is extensive literature in the medical sciences focusing on the development of protocols for synthetic urine preparation in various research domains, including urology ( Shafat et al., 2013 ), dermatology ( Mayrovitz and Sims, 2001 ) and nephrology ( Brooks and Keevil, 1997 ). These protocols have typically been designed to allow investigation of specific aspects, such as the formation of kidney stones ( e.g. , calcium oxalate dihydrate) in urine, study of renal physiology using in vitro cell culture ( Chutipongtanate and Thongboonkerd, 2010 ), urinary tract infections and growth of urinary pathogens ( Brooks and Keevil, 1997 ). More recent efforts have developed protocols for synthetic urine preparation that are not specific to an application, ( Chutipongtanate and Thongboonkerd, 2010 ; Sarigul et al., 2019 ), and can be more universally used across research disciplines ( Table 2 ). In fact, Sarigul et al. (2019) have shown that, by using attenuated total reflection-Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR), their synthetic urine comes closest to mimicking real urine. This recipe differs from many of those presented in Table 1 in two ways. First, it does not just include major inorganic metabolites and urea, but also major organic metabolites like creatinine, uric acid, citrate, and oxalate, which are normally excreted in real urine. Secondly, the recipe adds both NaH 2 PO 4 ·2H 2 O and Na 2 HPO 4 ·2H 2 O which more accurately reflects the speciation of phosphate in real fresh urine, which eliminates the need for adding HCl or NaOH to adjust the pH of urine. Their protocol is also practical as it does not contain an unreasonable number of metabolites (<15). Therefore, to urine researchers working in the sanitation space, we recommend using the protocol developed by Sarigul, et al. ( Sarigul et al., 2019 ) for preparing synthetic urine. However, considering that the concentration of different metabolites in urine varies (e.g., between 9.3 and 23.3 g L -1 for urea according to Putnam ( Putnam, 1971 )), we also suggest researchers to adjust the protocol (as shown by the “adjusted Putnam” recipe in Table 2 ) to prepare synthetic urine that accurately represents real urine produced in various geographical contexts. The key components of any synthetic urine recipe should include all major inorganic ions (Na + , K + , Mg 2+ , Ca 2+ , NH 4 + , Cl − , SO 4 2- , PO 4 -P), and all major organic metabolites (urea, creatinine, uric acid, citrate, and oxalic acid).

TABLE 2 . Concentrations of different constituents in a selection of synthetic human urine recipes described in the medical sciences literature. To urine researchers working in the sanitation space, we recommend using the protocol developed by ( Sarigul et al., 2019 ) and adapt it to account for variation in concentration of different metabolites excreted in urine. “Putnam adapted” shows the minimum and maximum acceptable limits for concentration of major metabolites in urine.

There are several sub-topics in sanitation-focused urine research, including the recovery of plant-essential nutrients and energy, removal of micropollutants, and inactivation of pathogens. These would need to be considered when adapting and using such a protocol. It is always possible to add more metabolites to synthetic urine depending on the question at hand (e.g., Brooks and Keevil ( Brooks and Keevil, 1997 ) added bacteriological peptone to account for amino acids and short chain peptides and yeast extract to account for nucleic acids excreted in urine, respectively). This can be particularly relevant when experimentation involves developing methods to reduce malodour from urine-separating toilets or light irradiation to degrade pollutants in urine, as all protocols for making synthetic urine produce odourless and colourless urine.

7 Conclusion and the way forward

Research on innovative technologies to recycle the resources in human urine is highly relevant for achieving a sustainable future and circular economy in the sanitation space. As such research has real-life implications, it is critical to constantly evaluate methods and methodological choices used in experimentation on this topic. One such choice that researchers must make is whether to use synthetic urine or real human urine. In this article, we argue that it can be difficult to accurately replicate the complex metabolome and properties of real urine using a synthetic recipe. We provide select examples from literature to suggest that results obtained when synthetic urine is used can differ from those obtained when real urine is used. In some cases, results of experiments conducted with real urine are not as promising as those achieved with synthetic urine, but publication of negative results is still to the benefit of the entire research community. While there are several benefits and valid reasons for using synthetic urine in research, some of which we present in this article, we have also noted a lack of consistency in the protocols for preparing synthetic urine in sanitation research. To address this, we provide suggestions and preliminary guidelines on protocols for preparing and using artificial urine, inspired by literature from the medical sciences. We hope that this article initiates a discussion on methodological choices in urine research among the community engaged with decentralised sanitation systems. Overall, we have the following recommendations:

1. Whenever it is feasible, work with real urine. Urine can be collected in a depersonalised manner from several donors and pooled together. Increasing the number of donors or the collection period for urine can mitigate issues related to variability in urine composition.

2. When preparing synthetic urine, use protocols that have been evaluated and validated with real urine, such as the protocol outlined by ( Sarigul et al., 2019 ) (See Table 2 ). Modify the protocol as shown in “Putnam adapted” in Table 2 to make synthetic urine that is representative of real urine produced in various geographical contexts. Include or exclude specific metabolites from the protocol depending on the research question, as this can be important when assessing different topics in sanitation-focused urine research, such as the degradation of micropollutants.

3. Follow up an experiment involving synthetic urine that yielded positive results with an experiment using real human urine, ideally within the same study. In studies where results of only synthetic urine are reported, authors should try to hypothesize how their results could differ in case real urine is used, raise any potential aspects that could be of concern, and recommend follow-up studies to use real urine to validate these hypotheses and/or confirm that similar results with real urine can be achieved.

4. Always clearly state in the article title, abstract and conclusions whether real or synthetic/artificial urine was used in experiments. In addition, specify within the article the type of urine used/replicated in the study (see Section 3 for definitions).

5. Work together as a community to develop terminology, definitions, methodologies and best practices for experimental work involving human urine.

Data availability statement

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/ Supplementary Material , further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

Author contributions

PS: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal Analysis, Funding acquisition, Investigation, Methodology, Project administration, Resources, Validation, Visualization, Writing–original draft, Writing–review and editing. CC: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal Analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Software, Validation, Visualization, Writing–original draft, Writing–review and editing. DR: Conceptualization, Investigation, Methodology, Software, Writing–original draft, Writing–review and editing.

The author(s) declare financial support was received for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. PS was supported by grants from Stiftelsen Lantbruksforskning for the project “Micropollutants-free sustainable beer production” (Grant number O-22-23-744) and the European Union’s Horizon Europe Research and Innovation Programme for the project “P2Green: Closing the gap between fork and farm for circular nutrient flows” (Grant number 101081883). Dyllon Randall and CC were supported by internal funding from the University of Cape Town and the August T Larsson Guest Researcher Programme at the Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

The author(s) declared that they were an editorial board member of Frontiers, at the time of submission. This had no impact on the peer review process and the final decision.

Publisher’s note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

Supplementary material

The Supplementary Material for this article can be found online at: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fenvs.2024.1367982/full#supplementary-material

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Keywords: simulation, synthetic urine, membrane, micropollutants, nutrient recycling, wastewater treatment

Citation: Simha P, Courtney C and Randall DG (2024) An urgent call for using real human urine in decentralized sanitation research and advancing protocols for preparing synthetic urine. Front. Environ. Sci. 12:1367982. doi: 10.3389/fenvs.2024.1367982

Received: 09 January 2024; Accepted: 04 March 2024; Published: 14 March 2024.

Reviewed by:

Copyright © 2024 Simha, Courtney and Randall. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Prithvi Simha, [email protected]

The literature review is a crucial step for conducting high-quality research, but it can be challenging and time-consuming. This article provides a comprehensive guide for conducting a literature review, covering the types, purposes, methods, and quality assessment of literature reviews. It also offers practical tips and examples for researchers and students who want to improve their ...

Importance of literature review in research: The importance of literature review in scientific manuscripts can be condensed into an analytical feature to enable the multifold reach of its significance. It adds value to the legitimacy of the research in many ways: Provides the interpretation of existing literature in light of updated ...

Writing a literature review requires a range of skills to gather, sort, evaluate and summarise peer-reviewed published data into a relevant and informative unbiased narrative. Digital access to research papers, academic texts, review articles, reference databases and public data sets are all sources of information that are available to enrich ...

Why is it important? A literature review is important because it: Explains the background of research on a topic. Demonstrates why a topic is significant to a subject area. Discovers relationships between research studies/ideas. Identifies major themes, concepts, and researchers on a topic. Identifies critical gaps and points of disagreement.

Examples of literature reviews. Step 1 - Search for relevant literature. Step 2 - Evaluate and select sources. Step 3 - Identify themes, debates, and gaps. Step 4 - Outline your literature review's structure. Step 5 - Write your literature review.

A literature or narrative review is a comprehensive review and analysis of the published literature on a specific topic or research question. The literature that is reviewed contains: books, articles, academic articles, conference proceedings, association papers, and dissertations. It contains the most pertinent studies and points to important ...

Besides the obvious reason for students -- because it is assigned! -- a literature review helps you explore the research that has come before you, to see how your research question has (or has not) already been addressed. You identify: core research in the field. experts in the subject area. methodology you may want to use (or avoid)

In writing the literature review, your purpose is to convey to your reader what knowledge and ideas have been established on a topic, and what their strengths and weaknesses are. As a piece of writing, the literature review must be defined by a guiding concept (e.g., your research objective, the problem or issue you are discussing, or your ...

A sophisticated literature review (LR) can result in a robust dissertation/thesis by scrutinizing the main problem examined by the academic study; anticipating research hypotheses, methods and results; and maintaining the interest of the audience in how the dissertation/thesis will provide solutions for the current gaps in a particular field.

A literature review is a survey of scholarly sources (such as books, journal articles, and theses) related to a specific topic or research question. It is often written as part of a thesis, dissertation , or research paper , in order to situate your work in relation to existing knowledge.

A literature review is meant to analyze the scholarly literature, make connections across writings and identify strengths, weaknesses, trends, and missing conversations. A literature review should address different aspects of a topic as it relates to your research question. A literature review goes beyond a description or summary of the ...

The objective of a Literature Review is to find previous published scholarly works relevant to an specific topic. Explains the background of research on a topic. Demonstrates why a topic is significant to a subject area. Discovers relationships between research studies/ideas. Identifies major themes, concepts, and researchers on a topic.

Review of research literature can be summarized into a seven step process: (i) Selecting research questions/purpose of the literature review (ii) ... An important tool that must be used while searching for research work is screening. Screening helps to improve the accuracy of search results. It is of two types: (1) Practical: To identify a ...

This is why the literature review as a research method is more relevant than ever. Traditional literature reviews often lack thoroughness and rigor and are conducted ad hoc, rather than following a specific methodology. ... Literature reviews play an important role as a foundation for all types of research. They can serve as a basis for ...

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7 Reasons Why Research Is Important Learn the true importance of research in daily life. Research is an invaluable skill that's necessary to master if you want to fully experience life. Concept Mapping to Write a Literature Review This article will explain how to use concept mapping to write an in-depth, thought-provoking literature review or ...

Literature reviews are important as research tools, especially in emerging areas, with populations that typically yield small samples (e.g., special education research ... • Why is a literature review especially important in areas that (a) are emerging, (b) typically have small samples (e.g., special education research), or (c) represent

A literature review is a study - or, more accurately, a survey - involving scholarly material, with the aim to discuss published information about a specific topic or research question. Therefore, to write a literature review, it is compulsory that you are a real expert in the object of study. The results and findings will be published and ...

Key Takeaways. Writing a literature review is important for the following reasons: It demonstrates that you understand the issue you're investigating. A literature review allows you to develop a more theoretical framework for your research. It justifies your research and shows the gaps present in the current literature.

A literature review can be a short introductory section of a research article or a report or policy paper that focuses on recent research. Or, in the case of dissertations, theses, and review articles, it can be an extensive review of all relevant research. The format is usually a bibliographic essay; sources are briefly cited within the body ...

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In published literature on wastewater treatment, it is common to encounter the use of synthetic urine or artificial urine, which is essentially a solution of the major inorganic and organic components in real urine, dissolved in water at room temperature.Table 1 lists a small selection of recipes that have been used in different studies to prepare synthetic urine or are referred to in studies ...