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Ten restorations that changed the world, number 5: Endeavour

10 restorations that changed the world

Number 5: Endeavour

It’s hard to gauge the importance of restoring Endeavour, the J-Class sloop designed by Charles Nicholson and launched in 1934 for British aviation entrepreneur Thomas Sopwith to mount a challenge to win the America’s Cup. Her 1989 restoration from rusting hulk re-ignited the J Class – and look how well that’s going these days. The woman behind it, Elizabeth Meyer, also went on to restore Shamrock V, built in 1930 for the tireless British optimist Sir Thomas Lipton. The two boats racing together really got pulses racing: “We held a series of regattas in 1989 and 1990 that were heavily televised in the US and got a lot of attention outside the sailing world,” remembers Elizabeth, who teamed up with Gary Jobson, Ted Turner and Buddy Melges to make it happen. The spectator fleet at the first regatta in Newport RI was as large or larger than the AC spectator fleets, according to Jobson and Turner.

One fan who came alongside in a Riva was Donald Trump, “whining to come aboard. Donald, Ivana and ‘young Donnie’ all toured the boat with me”. When Endeavour returned to land after racing, the crush of people wanting a taste of the J magic was such that the pontoon broke apart and sank. Whatever you think of them, the Js have forever epitomised the pinnacle of glamour in yacht sailing since then. And Trump’s career has really taken off too…

https://www.classicboat.co.uk/articles/ten-restorations-changed-world-number-6-gipsy-moth-iv/

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Story of the J-Class Yachts:

The J-Class was adopted for America's Cup competition in 1928, looking forward to the next regatta in 1930.  The Class itself, though, dated back to the turn of the century when the Universal Rule was adopted though no J-Class yachts had yet been built.

The Rule used a yacht's various dimensions to calculate an equivalent rating in feet.  Boats of equal rated lengths could then race against each other directly without making other allowances for time or distance sailed.  Even though one yacht might have a longer length or another yacht a larger sail area, their overall configurations had to produce a rated length that met the Universal Rule for that class. Boats in Class J, more commonly today termed J-Class yachts, were the largest constructed under the Universal Rule.  The Rule actually includes provisions for an even larger type of boat, the I Class, though none were ever built.  Inquiries made in the 1930s for a Defense in the smaller K Class were rejected.

The J-Class were the first yachts in an America's Cup match to be governed by a formal design rule.  Previous defenders and challengers were only restricted by minimum and maximum lengths set forth in the Deed of Gift.  Sir Thomas Lipton, challenging in 1930 for the fifth time, had held earlier discussions with the New York Yacht Club in hopes of adopting the Universal Rule for the previous America's Cup match, intended for 1914 but delayed until 1920.  Though an agreement to use the rule was not reached for that match, the 1914 US boats, Vanitie and Resolute, still roughly followed J-Class parameters.

Building Program:

There were only 10 J-class yachts designed and built.  Additionally, several yachts of closely related dimensions, mostly 23-Meter International Rule boats, were converted after their construction to meet the rating rules of the J-Class. 

Only the purpose-built Cup yachts, though, could compete in the America's Cup.  The "converted" J-Class yachts, while acceptable for Class racing events, were not admissible for America's Cup competition.  Responding to issues that surfaced in earlier defenses, the America's Cup rules required that all boats had to be sailed to the event on their own bottom.  Some critics pointed out the possibility that the challenger might, as a result, be disadvantaged by  being of heavier construction than the defender.  In order to avoid a situation that could be perceived as an undue advantage, the NYYC eventually agreed that all America's Cup J-Class yachts would be built to Lloyds A1 standards, ensuring that defender and challenger met the same minimum construction specifications (the nautical term is "scantlings").  Most existing yachts were not built to such standards, so the Cup-eligible boats thus ended up heavier than the ineligible J's.

(The issue of challengers having to build heavier boats due to the ocean crossing was a popular, if uncertain, explanation in the British press for the long string of American victories.  In practice, a number of challengers added internal bracing for the crossing, which was then removed before racing.  And on a few occasions defenders subsequently made the crossing in reverse in search of competition following their successful defense.  The rule requiring that the challenger sail to the event on her own bottom was actually instituted in response to a super-lightweight challenger towed to the match through canals and rivers from Canada.

The J-Class Yachts

Disposition:

Conceived at the height of the affluent 1920's, the J-boats arrived during the Great Depression.  They required enormous crews, and, despite expert attention to their technical details, still broke an astonishing number of masts.  While they were in most regards the most advanced sailing yachts yet built, and they were  indeed powerful sailing thoroughbreds formed in sleek lines that can race the pulse of almost every viewer, the glorious J's proved too extravagant for their own good.  Most had very limited sailing careers outside of America's Cup.  Ranger , whose 1937 cost was upwards of $500,000, was laid-up at the end of her debut season and never sailed again.  All of the American J's were scrapped between 1935 and 1941. Most of the British J's were either abandoned or scrapped.

When NYYC sought to revive the America's Cup in the 1950s, there was a faction that favored returning to the J-Class.  Mike Vanderbilt even stated that not only would he like to see the Cup contested in the large boats, but that if so he would consider rebuilding a new Range r to the design of the original.  Still, another faction hoped for smaller dual-use yachts that could be used in offshore racing when the Cup year was ended.  With cost estimates for a 1958-era J starting around three million dollars, the impulse for a J-Class defense faded away in the face of economic pressures and a compromise was reached to sail the America's Cup in International Rule 12-Meters.

The J-Class Resurgent

J-Class rigs today are no longer built of wood or dur-alumin, but with modern lightweight composites.  Their sail technology is long past being canvas duck, and many other subtle changes have been made to make the ongoing maintenance and operation of these yachts a realistic proposition.  Still, the J-Class owners have gone to great lengths to insure the integrity of the boats.  The J-Class is self-administered, rather than governed by an outside organization as is the case with almost all other classes.  This allows the members to more easily adapt the rules in order to serve the needs of these uniquely historic yachts.

Most of the surviving J's are available for charter.  Cambria was reportedly for sale in 2000.  Endeavour changed hands in 2006 for a reported $13.1 million USD, though as her former owner Dennis Kozlowski said, "No one truly owns Endeavour .  She's a part of yachting history.''

Recreations, Replicas, and a Tender:

For decades, most yachting fans thought that we would never again see the likes of these boats again, the few survivors would sooner or later fade away, and the whole history would be reserved for books and fading photographs, but following the restoration of the surviving hulls rumors grew throughout the late 1990's and early 2000's about building "new" J's.  In 2001, all of this dock talk began to become reality:

Ranger Wooden Boat magazine, March/April 2001, described a "Dutchman" who had commissioned a new Ranger built to the original's plan.  This incredible rumor came true, and a piece of lost sailing history was brought back to life.  The new version of this "Superboat", as Mike Vanderbilt once called her, was officially launched in October, 2003. 

Designed by Studio Scanu and Reichel-Pugh, and built by Danish Yachts, Skagen, Denmark, she is not an exact replica of the original. Some would term her a re-interpretation, as a number of changes were made including greater freeboard, and Ranger 's original designers did not participate in the project.  The new Ranger first competed head-to-head against other J's in Antigua, Spring, 2004.  It took some additional adjustment after launch by her owners and designers to seek the proper trim that would make her float on her lines, an essential step in the process of being officially rated a J-Class yacht.  Visit the Ranger Website for more info.  J-Class Management is also at work on a restoration of Bystander, tender to the original Ranger .

Endeavour II An Endeavour II replica is being built at Royal Huisman Shipyard, with a planned 2008 launch date.  Gerard Dykstra and Partners is leading the project, which features a lightweight Alustar (aluminum alloy) hull and carbon-fiber mast.  See additional photo at Yachtspotter

Lionheart Based on an unbuilt alternate design by Starling Burgess and Olin Stephens II that was considered for 1937's America's Cup defender Ranger , this new boat is being built at yards in the Netherlands for an expected 2008 launch.  Lionheart will be the longest J-Class yacht when completed. See more including photos of the completed hull at the Lionheart Website and the story of sailing onboard including photos and videos Cruising J-Class Style Aboard Lionheart at Yachting World Designer:  Hoek Design Builders: Bloemsma Aluminiumbouw and Claasen Jachtbouw BV

Svea Tore Holm's unbuilt 1937 design, said by some to be faster in the test tank than any of the original boats, is being pursued by Hoek Design

Name To Be Announced In late March 2008, reports of another replica about to begin construction appeared on the Classic Boat website .  Whether this is one of the known projects, such as Svea , above, or yet another replica about to become reality, such as Rainbow , below, should become known shortly.

Rainbow In late May, 2008, Dykstra and Partners announced that a new build of the 1934 America's Cup Defender Rainbow was underway, with an expected launch date of 2010.  Read the Press Release

Other projects: Hoek Design is also studying replicas of 1930's Enterprise and another boat from Yankee designer Frank Paine.  Yankee herself has also been rumored as a new project, as well.  Earlier reports of a Ranger alternate-design carrying the name of Seawolf may have been referring to the project that has become Lionheart , see above.  Whirlwind and Weetamoe are the only two designs of the original ten J's that aren't known to be sailing, building, or under serious consideration as of 2008.  The J-Class website points out that there are 10 unbuilt J designs from the 1930's, so the possibilities for more J-Class yachts are intriguing.

Yachting World reported in May, 2003 , that construction was underway on a yacht replicating the famous G.L Watson design Britannia .  Photos showed a nearly completed hull at Solombala Shipyard, in Arkhangel, Russia, and included interviews with the yacht's owner Sigurd Coates of Norway.  The design was adapted by Cesil Stephansen from published plans.  The original designer's modern descendent company, G.L.Watson & Co., Ltd., has no involvement with the Arkhangel boat.  Little was been heard of this ambitious project for years, until the yacht was finally launched only to become subject of a financial dispute, trapping her in Russia until 2009, when she "escaped" to Norway. 

In the Spirit

A similar project to return elegant yachts to competitive racing, the W-class, was set in motion by Donald Tofias, an American enthusiast.  He commissioned naval architect Joel White to design a new class with lines evocative of famous racing yachts like the New York 50's and the J-Class.  The first two boats, Wild Horses and White Wings , were built in Maine of modern cold-molded wood construction and launched in 1998.  It is Tofias' aim that there will eventually be a whole fleet of the beautiful W-class to regularly compete against each other.  The one-design W-76 is actually similar to the New York 50's.  Tofias' long-range plans involve a range of classes including 46, 62, 76, 105, and 130.  The 130's would be nearly identical in basic dimensions to the J-class. See the W-Class Websit e .  

Additional Links: Chris Cameron onboard Ranger at Maxi Yacht Rolex Cup, 2010: Photo Gallery

Web Sites of Particular Interest: The J-Class Association J-Class Management, Inc.  

Further Notes:

K-Class: The Royal London Yacht Club made and withdrew its inquiry for a K-Class challenge in 1935.  The intent had been to reduce costs, not the least of which was hoped to be a lower velocity of mast replacement, but the K-Class line of thought was rejected for several reasons.  For one, the K-Class wasn't so much smaller than the J-Class as to have clearly led to significant savings.  Additionally, no K-Class yachts existed on either side of the Atlantic while several J's of various pedigree were available for testing, training, and racing in 1935.  Also a factor was that the NYYC was already actively considering another challenge at the time the RLYC began their communication  about the K-Class and it was the NYYC's policy to consider only one challenge at a time, in keeping with the Deed of Gift.

Sailing to the Event on Own Bottom: This provision of the Deed of Gift was at times strictly interpreted to the the degree of making sure that the challenging yacht actually was under her own sail while traveling to the match, not towed by another boat.  Challengers returning across the Atlantic after Cup matches concluded were sometimes towed for convenience. Eventually the NYYC agreed at various times to permit towing the yachts to the match, particularly when conditions were light, and in 1956, for the coming of the 12-meter yachts in 1958, the Deed of Gift was amended to eliminate the requirement.

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In total nine J Class yachts are currently active, including three original surviving Js - Velsheda, Shamrock and Endeavour - and six replicas that have been built since 2003; Ranger, Rainbow, Hanuman, Lionheart, Topaz and Svea.

Endeavour, JK4

Velsheda, JK7

Rainbow, JKZ1

Shamrock V, JK3

Hanuman JK6

Lionheart, JH1

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€2.5M price drop on iconic J Class yacht Endeavour

The historic 39.56 metre classic J Class sailing yacht     Endeavour , listed for sale by Alex Busher at Edmiston & Company , has had a €2,500,000 price reduction.

Commissioned by aeroplane magnate Thomas Sopwith, she was drawn by British yacht designer, C E Nicholson, and delivered by UK yard Camper & Nicholsons in 1934. Her performance ahead of the 1934 America's Cup was superb. British attempts to regain the Cup had long been thwarted but here at last was a worthy challenger. Then, as if destined to heroic failure, mismanagement set a course that would doom the yacht to defeat.

The yacht raced for only four more years, with the last of them seeing her back in US waters acting as trial horse for Sopwith’s doomed _Endeavour II_challenge. However, while there she scored a win over the American Super J and 1937 Cup Defender  Ranger  – an achievement no other J Class yacht had ever managed.

For nearly 50 years  Endeavour  clung to a precarious existence. She and her younger sister were sold off and their lead keels were removed. Plans to convert  Endeavour  into a cruising yacht fell through, as did a number of rescue attempts while she was laid up at various locations on the South Coast of England. The last of these saw her moved to Calshot Spit, and it was there that US classic yacht enthusiast Elizabeth Meyer discovered her. She had not come seeking to buy  Endeavour , just to see the supreme leviathan, but the yacht had found her saviour – and a hands-on one, too.

The steelwork was carried out on site before the project was relocated to the Royal Huisman shipyard in Holland, and in 1989 Meyer unveiled her achievement to an astonished world. She had succeeded against all the odds, and  Endeavour  was back, her original beauty fully revealed.

In 2011/2012 she was completely refitted with no expense spared, bringing her back to fine condition and only used privately since. Accommodation is for eight guests in a master suite, two doubles with en suite facilities and a twin with bunk beds.

Lying in Palma de Mallorca, Spain,   yacht for sale Endeavour  is now asking €17,500,000.

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J Class Sailing Yacht Endeavour Completes Refit

By Ben Roberts

Originally launched in 1934 by Camper & Nicholsons shipyard, the iconic J Class sloop Endeavour was proudly launched by Yachting Developments at their facilities in Auckland last week after an extensive 18 month refit project.

The 39m sailing yacht Endeavour was built in 1934 for Sir T.O.M Sopwith, a man who had a vision of competing in a wide variety of high-class regattas with an unrivalled sailing yacht. Since her launch, Endeavour has gathered a formidable history and has passed through a number of dedicated sailing enthusiasts over her 46 years.

Now, this stunning yacht has emerged from the Yachting Developments shipyard a new superyacht and a formidable racing opponent. Absolute care has been taken throughout the refit to preserve as much of the vessel as practical while taking advantage of twenty first century sailing systems, enhanced performance and improved functionality.

The comprehensive refit includes removal and replacement of the complete weather deck including all deck equipment. Steel deck framing has also been relocated to accommodate the new load paths of the new deck layout.

There has been a long term philosophy of longevity and serviceability throughout the refit ensuring Endeavour will remain the historic icon she is today for future generations.

Naval Architects, Dykstra & Partners, were reportedly instrumental in the design of the new sail plan, deck layout, and structural engineering. Alongside the structural changes, the main engines, generators, hydraulic systems, winches, electrical system, electronics, bow thruster and air conditioning have been replaced or upgraded.

Accommodation forward of the mast has been reconfigured by John Munford and Adam Lay, whilst the new interior design has been built by the in-house tradesmen of Yachting Developments.

Yachting Developments Managing Director Ian Cook describes working on Endeavour as “ an honor, she is something special, everyone involved has put their heart and soul into the refit, I think the care, and passion is very evident in the end result” .

After completing her final sea trials, Endeavour will have one last tune up on Auckland Harbor before being shipped to the Northern Hemisphere in February to compete in the 2012 J Class regattas: timed to coincide with the Olympic Games in London.

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If you have any questions about the Endeavour information page below please contact us .

Sailing yacht ‘Endeavour’ is a 130 foot J Class classic sailing sloop which was launched in 1934 and embodies one of the most formidable and famous sailing yachts in the world. Following her 2011 refit, she is in an ‘as new’ condition and is ready and waiting to give you the exhilaration of the powerful sailing of yesteryear. Her high sailing performance is matched only by her truly elegant interior accommodations and extremely high standard of craftsmanship, catering, service and facilities.

Sailing yacht Endeavour has now been almost entirely rebuilt in such a way that her quality of workmanship and sleek lines are entirely consistent with her original condition. She does, however, boast the recent technology and increased performance of a modern yacht. She has a powerful engine and generators as well as bow thrusters, an aluminium mast and boom, hydraulic winches and a water-maker and all the latest electronic entertainment and navigation and equipment one could desire.

Endeavour's saloon and dining area is an amazingly memorable space for charter guests to relax and entertain. Her interior joinery is American Cherry wood raised panels, nickel plated fixtures and locust sole.

The crew of classic charter yacht Endeavour are professional and amongst the best in the business. They include the captain, first mate, engineer, chef, steward, stewardess, as well as three deckhands. The fantastic friendly crew will pamper you with first-class service and absolutely fabulous cuisine during your yacht charter. As a lady who has been brought into the contemporary world, Endeavour provides all the modern electrical entertainment systems and yacht water toys. Have you ever helmed just a famous, powerful and impressive classic yacht? It will be no problem if you wish to spend most of your day helming the greatest yacht in the world, the mighty Endeavor under full sail!

Endeavour Specifications

Sailing yacht Endeavour has been awarded the best Refitted yacht at the 2013 World Superyacht Awards and her extensive 18month refit, which concluded in October 2011, included the replacement of the complete weather deck, new deck equipment, relocation of steel deck framing, reconfiguration of the accommodation forward and new interior.  The main engine, electrical system, electronics, air conditioning, hydraulics bow thruster and winches were all replaced.  A new carbon fibre mast was built by Southern Spars and the new interior was built in house by Yachting Developments tradesmen.  Dykstra & Partners, Naval Architects, have been instrumental in the design of the new sail plan, deck layout, and structural engineering. The interior was collaborated by John Munford and Adam Lay Design Studios to ensure the originality of the boat was maintained.  Care was taken throughout the refit to preserve as much of the vessel as practical, yet still enhance performance and improve functionality.  

Yacht Accommodation

Classic Sailing yacht Endeavour is remarkably comfortable with accommodation for up to eight guests in four staterooms - two with queen berths, one with a king berth and one with twin berths. The staterooms adjoin their own baths with lovely heated towel bars and nickel plated shower enclosures. Endeavour’s master bathroom also features an over-sized bath tub.

Amenities and Extras

Luxury classic sailing yacht Endeavour offers the following amenities for your yacht charter vacation: a Zodiac Mark 2 tender with a 25 h.p. out-board engine, two wind-surfers, a dive compressor and a water maker. In the yacht’s Saloon is a 25 inch TV with VCR and an N.A.D. music system with a CD player and there are both indoor and outdoor speakers, a large library of CDs movies etc. Her Master stateroom also provides a Hi Fi music system with a CD player. Sailing yacht Endeavour is fully air conditioned throughout the interior in all of her staterooms. The yacht has up to date modern communication and navigation electronic equipment.

Endeavour Disclaimer:

The luxury yacht Endeavour displayed on this page is merely informational and she is not necessarily available for yacht charter or for sale, nor is she represented or marketed in anyway by CharterWorld. This web page and the superyacht information contained herein is not contractual. All yacht specifications and informations are displayed in good faith but CharterWorld does not warrant or assume any legal liability or responsibility for the current accuracy, completeness, validity, or usefulness of any superyacht information and/or images displayed. All boat information is subject to change without prior notice and may not be current.

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Camper & Nicholsons became known for its fast, wooden racing sailing yachts, which included the famed J-Class sloops that competed in the America’s Cup Races of the early 20th century, including two J-Class boats commissioned by Sir Thomas Sopwith, Endeavour and Endeavour II.

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Endeavour J Class Yacht America’s Cup 1934 Model Ship Kit – Amati (AM1700/82)

The Endeavour J Class Yacht America’s Cup 1934 Model Ship Kit is manufactured by Amati ship model kits. Amati Model Ship Kits are faithful interpretations of the original vessel. All materials are of the finest available and plans and instructions are always excellent and easily followed. Amati has integrated computer design and the latest materials to produce high quality ship model kits.

History of the Endeavour J Class Yacht America’s Cup 1934

The Schooner Endeavour staked a claim on the America’s Cup, winning the first two races. The third regatta was bound to be the most exciting. Fate played an unkind trick to Sir Thomas Sopwith, who failed and thus couldn’t win the America’s Cup. Model Kit includes plank-on-bulkhead construction; laser cutted wooden deck and planking; brass and wooden fittings; photo etched brass details; cloth sails; plans and detailed instructions.

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Yachting World

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The new heyday of the J Class – why this illustrious class is now more popular than ever

• Toby Hodges
• March 24, 2017

Toby Hodges on the 2017 renaissance of the giant J Class yachts

Yacht brokers Edmiston created the opportunity to get us aboard Endeavour , which is currently for sale ( see original blog and history here ), the most beautiful of the J Class yachts and ranked among the most iconic yachts ever. Sailing simply doesn’t get any finer than this.

Compare all the J Class yachts with our pocket guide .

The word that kept entering my head and one that can be applied to all J Class yachts is ‘majestic’. They sail upwind at 10 knots and downwind at up to 13 knots – pedestrian by today’s planing and flying standards – and can be beasts to handle. But J Class yachts remain sensational to sail and mesmerising to watch.

The launch of the latest J Class yacht Svea this January takes the current fleet up to nine. That’s a collective weight of around 1,600 tonnes, with a sail area over 8,360m2 (90,000ft2).

Stack the J Class masts up end to end and they would reach the top of the Empire State Building. Their collective worth is over £100 million according to some camps – priceless in others.

When you consider that there were only ever ten J Class yachts built originally in the 1930s, a maximum of four of which sailed together at one time, and that all bar three were destroyed for scrap – the fact that five J Class yachts have launched in the last eight years is a pretty radical turnaround.

Six J Class yachts will race for the first time ever in St Barth this March. Eight out of the nine will then go to Bermuda for the America’s Cup showcase event in June (perhaps all nine if Endeavour sells before then), where a record seven will compete – a prospect that few people could ever have imagined before the recent resurgence of the class.

The J Class is unparalleled in any sport: historic yet cutting edge, competitive but also used for pleasure. They are the multimillionaire’s ultimate racer-cruiser.

Unlike maxi racing yachts, Js have fully fitted luxury interiors, a rule instigated by the class to ensure a multi-role yacht.

Endeavour ’s finely appointed saloon.

One of the charms of J Class yachts is that their size and shape can swallow these interiors without harming performance – long overhangs mean the accommodation and associated weight remains central. And unlike modern performance superyachts that occasionally race, J Class yachts are seaworthy racing machines that can be cruised and are united by an absorbing history.

J Class yachts have the best systems, hydraulics, deck gear, sails and rigging to take the highest dynamic loads, and are crewed by armies of the most experienced pros on the circuit. Most J Class owners still enjoy cruising too. Indeed, both the current owners of Endeavour and Rainbow choose only to cruise – and over the last three decades, Endeavour has sailed all over the world.

A turning point for the class

In the last 15 years we have seen J Class yachts evolve from exhibition yachts to cutting edge race boats. The designs range from the wood-composite 1930-built Shamrock V , at 120ft the smallest J afloat, to the newly launched 143ft Svea , an aluminium masterpiece.

Superyachts Palma J Class Lionheart J-H1. Photo Nico Martinez

The America’s Cup Jubilee regatta in Cowes in 2001 was a real turning point for the class. For the previous 20 years the three Js had only cruised or raced with Corinthian crew. But when Endeavour showed the difference that racing with professionals could make, things changed.

Many were against the introduction of pro crews, but it was a transition that was inevitable if the three-strong class was ever to grow. These 180-tonne yachts could not conceivably race safely with five or more on the startline today without pros in key positions.

Ranger entered the scene in 2004 and this increased the momentum in the class further. Together with Velsheda she has been a stalwart of the regatta scene since.

The owner-drivers have become confident and competent, particularly on Velsheda and Lionheart , and can regularly boss and win the prestart with the aid of their expert tacticians.

But with more Js on the line this summer, the experience of top helmsman such as Ken Read ( Hanuman ), Erle Williams ( Ranger ) and Peter Holmberg ( Topaz ) could be a deciding factor. Clear air will be gold.

I have been fortunate enough to race aboard several J Class yachts in big regattas during this modern era and it is always an electrifying experience. It requires around 30 crewmembers to race a J, which is more than most other large racing yachts, with a team of no fewer than eight required to handle the spinnaker pole.

“The excitement is the closeness of the racing and all the loads and the amount of effort it takes to coordinate all 30 guys to do something at once,” said North Sails Scott Zebny. “That’s the cool part.”

• 1. Introduction
• 2. The Dutch design edge